| # | Polity | Coded Value | Tags | Year(s) | Edit | Desc |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
km squared. Around 800 BCE with the Assyrian conquest, the Phoenicians began their extensive campaign of colonizing the Mediterranean.
|
||||||
|
km squared. Around 800 BCE with the Assyrian conquest, the Phoenicians began their extensive campaign of colonizing the Mediterranean.
|
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km squared. The settlers maintained cultural ties with Scandinavia and the British Isles: ’Iceland was a new society, however Icelandic culture perpetuated many of the cultural standards from Scandinavia, especially Norway. While both Norse and Celtic peoples contributed to the founding population they had unequal impacts on the culture of Iceland. Celts appear to have been incorporated into Norse households and appear to have little lasting impact on the cultural and institutional developments that were predominantly Scandinavian in origin. The first settlers claimed lands and established dispersed farmsteads. Many of the economic practices were unsuitable to the fragile Icelandic environment and resulted in deforestation and land erosion, especially in the uplands. As population grew, settlement expanded, and new farmsteads were divided from previous land claims. In 930 A.D. the General Assembly (ALÞINGI) was founded, providing an institution integrating the entire island. The same assembly accepted Christianity as the religion of the land in 1000 A.D. The thirteenth century was a period of escalating conflict (STURLUNGAÖLD) chieftains attempted to exert control beyond their local regions. The system of autonomous chieftains ended after 1262 A.D. when Iceland came under Norwegian rule. The Viking Age expansion into the North Atlantic did not end at Iceland. In the late tenth century Eirík the Red led a major venture to colonize Greenland and his son, Leifur Eiríksson, has been credited with the European discovery of North America. Early Icelanders maintained close ties with Scandinavia and the British Isles. Continental trading and raiding expeditions were common activities for those with the means to take a share in a boat. Their travels sometimes took them as far as Eastern Europe and the Mediterranean.’
[1]
Icelanders also maintained trading relations with Europe: ’The early Icelanders maintained commercial contacts with Europe and obtained goods from Scandinavia, England, the Norse Orkneys, and the Netherlands. The majority of trade, however, was with Norway, both for Norwegian goods and for foreign goods obtained by Norwegian merchants. The limited resources, especially in terms of raw materials for manufactured goods, made Iceland highly dependent on imported goods. Even before the decline and cessation of grain production in Iceland it is unlikely that Iceland ever produced enough cereals to meet its own needs. Of special significance in a feasting economy, grain and malt were essential to ale production. After Christianization imported wine also become essential for the celebration of communion. Many higher quality iron products, for example weapons and armor, could not be produced from local sources and were imported, mostly in finished forms. Other metals - brass, tin, lead, gold, silver, and bronze - were unavailable locally as well as steatite for utensils and stone suitable for making whetstones. Iceland had a limited number of exportable resources and goods. Homespun woolen cloth was the principal export and was a common standard of value in local exchanges. Sulfur, unavailable from any continental source, was a valuable commodity. Falcons and various animal skins - sheep, fox, and cat - were marketable as were cheese and possibly butter. Fish, the current mainstay of the Icelandic economy was not a significant export item in early Iceland.’
[1]
Wikipedia gives the total geographical extent of the Scandinavian countries (including both Northern Europe and the North Atlantic, i.e. Iceland and Greenland) as 3,425,804 km squared, rounded to 3,400,000 km squared
[2]
. This number is rather high due to the inclusion of Greenland. We have imported this number provisionally, but remain open to diverging geographical demarkations. After the conversion to Christianity, Iceland and Scandinavia became part of the greater cultural sphere of Latin Christendom.
[3]
We have estimated the geographical extent of Latin Christendom to be around 5,600,000 km squared, including Northern, Western, and Central Europe as well as parts of Southern Europe. This figure is only an approximation and therefore open to re-evaluation.
[1]: Bolender, Douglas James and Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for Early Icelanders [2]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordic_countries [3]: Árni Daniel Júlíusson and Axel Kristissen 2017, pers. comm. to E. Brandl and D. Mullins |
||||||
|
km squared. The settlers maintained cultural ties with Scandinavia and the British Isles: ’Iceland was a new society, however Icelandic culture perpetuated many of the cultural standards from Scandinavia, especially Norway. While both Norse and Celtic peoples contributed to the founding population they had unequal impacts on the culture of Iceland. Celts appear to have been incorporated into Norse households and appear to have little lasting impact on the cultural and institutional developments that were predominantly Scandinavian in origin. The first settlers claimed lands and established dispersed farmsteads. Many of the economic practices were unsuitable to the fragile Icelandic environment and resulted in deforestation and land erosion, especially in the uplands. As population grew, settlement expanded, and new farmsteads were divided from previous land claims. In 930 A.D. the General Assembly (ALÞINGI) was founded, providing an institution integrating the entire island. The same assembly accepted Christianity as the religion of the land in 1000 A.D. The thirteenth century was a period of escalating conflict (STURLUNGAÖLD) chieftains attempted to exert control beyond their local regions. The system of autonomous chieftains ended after 1262 A.D. when Iceland came under Norwegian rule. The Viking Age expansion into the North Atlantic did not end at Iceland. In the late tenth century Eirík the Red led a major venture to colonize Greenland and his son, Leifur Eiríksson, has been credited with the European discovery of North America. Early Icelanders maintained close ties with Scandinavia and the British Isles. Continental trading and raiding expeditions were common activities for those with the means to take a share in a boat. Their travels sometimes took them as far as Eastern Europe and the Mediterranean.’
[1]
Icelanders also maintained trading relations with Europe: ’The early Icelanders maintained commercial contacts with Europe and obtained goods from Scandinavia, England, the Norse Orkneys, and the Netherlands. The majority of trade, however, was with Norway, both for Norwegian goods and for foreign goods obtained by Norwegian merchants. The limited resources, especially in terms of raw materials for manufactured goods, made Iceland highly dependent on imported goods. Even before the decline and cessation of grain production in Iceland it is unlikely that Iceland ever produced enough cereals to meet its own needs. Of special significance in a feasting economy, grain and malt were essential to ale production. After Christianization imported wine also become essential for the celebration of communion. Many higher quality iron products, for example weapons and armor, could not be produced from local sources and were imported, mostly in finished forms. Other metals - brass, tin, lead, gold, silver, and bronze - were unavailable locally as well as steatite for utensils and stone suitable for making whetstones. Iceland had a limited number of exportable resources and goods. Homespun woolen cloth was the principal export and was a common standard of value in local exchanges. Sulfur, unavailable from any continental source, was a valuable commodity. Falcons and various animal skins - sheep, fox, and cat - were marketable as were cheese and possibly butter. Fish, the current mainstay of the Icelandic economy was not a significant export item in early Iceland.’
[1]
Wikipedia gives the total geographical extent of the Scandinavian countries (including both Northern Europe and the North Atlantic, i.e. Iceland and Greenland) as 3,425,804 km squared, rounded to 3,400,000 km squared
[2]
. This number is rather high due to the inclusion of Greenland. We have imported this number provisionally, but remain open to diverging geographical demarkations. After the conversion to Christianity, Iceland and Scandinavia became part of the greater cultural sphere of Latin Christendom.
[3]
We have estimated the geographical extent of Latin Christendom to be around 5,600,000 km squared, including Northern, Western, and Central Europe as well as parts of Southern Europe. This figure is only an approximation and therefore open to re-evaluation.
[1]: Bolender, Douglas James and Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for Early Icelanders [2]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordic_countries [3]: Árni Daniel Júlíusson and Axel Kristissen 2017, pers. comm. to E. Brandl and D. Mullins |
||||||
|
km squared. Entirety of the Qing Empire
|
||||||
|
in squared kilometers
|
||||||
|
km^2
|
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km^2
|
||||||
|
km^2
|
||||||
|
km squared.
rough area of quasi-polity territory |
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km^2
|
||||||
|
km.
|
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km squared. The names of the relevant Shuar groups are: ’Shuar (Shuara), Achuara (Atchuara, Achual), Aguaruna, Huambisa (Huambiza), Mayna’
[1]
From the colonial period onwards, contact with Spanish and later Ecuadorian settler populations and traders needs to be factored in as well: ’The first reported white penetration of Jivaro territory was made in 1549 by a Spanish expedition under Hernando de Benavente. Later expeditions of colonists and soldiers soon followed. These newcomers traded with the Jivaro, made peace pacts with them, and soon began to exploit the gold found in alluvial or glacial deposits in the region. Eventually the Spaniards were able to obtain the co-operation of some of the Indians in working the gold deposits, but others remained hostile, killing many of the colonists and soldiers at every opportunity. Under the subjection of the Spaniards, the Jivaro were required to pay tribute in gold dust; a demand that increased yearly. Finally, in 1599, the Jivaro rebelled en masse, killing many thousands of Spaniards in the process and driving them from the region. After 1599, until nearly the middle of the nineteenth century, Jivaro-European relations remained intermittent and mostly hostile. A few missionary and military expeditions entered the region from the Andean highlands, but these frequently ended in disaster and no permanent colonization ever resulted. One of the few "friendly" gestures reported for the tribe during this time occurred in 1767, when they gave a Spanish missionizing expedition "gifts", which included the skulls of Spaniards who had apparently been killed earlier by the Jivaro (Harner, 1953: 26). Thus it seems that the Jivaros are the only tribe known to have successfully revolted against the Spanish Empire and to have been able to thwart all subsequent attempts by the Spaniards to conquer them. They have withstood armies of gold seeking Inkas as well as Spaniards, and defied the bravado of the early conquistadors.’
[2]
’Frontier’ groups acted as intermediaries between white settlers and ’interior’ communities: ’Much of the trade of the Jivaro is between the "interior", relatively isolated groups (particularly the Achuara) and those "frontier" groups living in close proximity to Ecuadorian settlements where they have easy access to Western industrialized products. Through a series of neighborhood-to-neighborhood relays by native trading partners (AMIGRI ) these products were passed from the frontier Jivaro into the most remote parts of the tribal territory. Thus the interior Jivaro were supplied with steel cutting tools, firearms and ammunition without having to come into contact with the population of European ancestry. In exchange the frontier Jivaro, whose supply of local game was nearly exhausted, obtained hides, feathers and bird skins (used for ornaments), which were not readily available in their own territory.’
[2]
eHRAF groups the Shuar with other indigenous societies of the Amazon-Orinoco area
[3]
. Wikipedia gives the size of Amazonia as 5,500,000 square kilometres
[4]
.
[1]: Beierle, John: eHRAf Cultural Summary for the Jivaro [2]: Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro [3]: http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/ehrafe/browseCultures.do?context=main#region=7 [4]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_rainforest |
||||||
|
km squared. The names of the relevant groups are: ’Shuar (Shuara), Achuara (Atchuara, Achual), Aguaruna, Huambisa (Huambiza), Mayna’
[1]
From the colonial period onwards, contact with Spanish and later Ecuadorian settler populations and traders needs to be factored in: ’The first reported white penetration of Jivaro territory was made in 1549 by a Spanish expedition under Hernando de Benavente. Later expeditions of colonists and soldiers soon followed. These newcomers traded with the Jivaro, made peace pacts with them, and soon began to exploit the gold found in alluvial or glacial deposits in the region. Eventually the Spaniards were able to obtain the co-operation of some of the Indians in working the gold deposits, but others remained hostile, killing many of the colonists and soldiers at every opportunity. Under the subjection of the Spaniards, the Jivaro were required to pay tribute in gold dust; a demand that increased yearly. Finally, in 1599, the Jivaro rebelled en masse, killing many thousands of Spaniards in the process and driving them from the region. After 1599, until nearly the middle of the nineteenth century, Jivaro-European relations remained intermittent and mostly hostile. A few missionary and military expeditions entered the region from the Andean highlands, but these frequently ended in disaster and no permanent colonization ever resulted. One of the few "friendly" gestures reported for the tribe during this time occurred in 1767, when they gave a Spanish missionizing expedition "gifts", which included the skulls of Spaniards who had apparently been killed earlier by the Jivaro (Harner, 1953: 26). Thus it seems that the Jivaros are the only tribe known to have successfully revolted against the Spanish Empire and to have been able to thwart all subsequent attempts by the Spaniards to conquer them. They have withstood armies of gold seeking Inkas as well as Spaniards, and defied the bravado of the early conquistadors.’
[2]
’Much of the trade of the Jivaro is between the "interior", relatively isolated groups (particularly the Achuara) and those "frontier" groups living in close proximity to Ecuadorian settlements where they have easy access to Western industrialized products. Through a series of neighborhood-to-neighborhood relays by native trading partners (AMIGRI ) these products were passed from the frontier Jivaro into the most remote parts of the tribal territory. Thus the interior Jivaro were supplied with steel cutting tools, firearms and ammunition without having to come into contact with the population of European ancestry. In exchange the frontier Jivaro, whose supply of local game was nearly exhausted, obtained hides, feathers and bird skins (used for ornaments), which were not readily available in their own territory.’
[2]
’By 1899, when the explorer Up de Graff ascended the Marañón, Barranca was considered the westernmost outpost of civilization on the river (1923:146). It had, nevertheless, withstood its own share of Indian attacks (Larrabure i Correa 1905/II:369; IX:357-367). Less than a year prior to Up de Graff’s visit, Barranca was nearly devastated by a party of Huambisas who arrived from upriver ostensibly to trade, but then burned and looted most of the cauchero quarters (Up de Graff 1923:150).’
[3]
’By the turn of the century, when Ecuadorian missionaries had reunited some of the scattered refugees and reestablished their town on the Bobonaza River, there were at least a dozen caucheros exploiting rubber along western tributaries of the middle Pastaza such as the Huasaga (Fuentes 1908/I:194ff.), which was gradually being occupied by southward-moving Achuarä.’
[4]
The peculiarities of the colonial situation make an estimate of the scale of supracultural interaction more difficult. eHRAF groups the Shuar with other indigenous societies of the Amazon-Orinoco area
[5]
. Wikipedia gives the size of Amazonia as 5,500,000 square kilometres
[6]
.
[1]: Beierle, John: eHRAf Cultural Summary for the Jivaro [2]: Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro [3]: Bennett Ross, Jane 1984. “Effects Of Contact On Revenge Hostilities Among The Achuará Jívaro”, 91 [4]: Bennett Ross, Jane 1984. “Effects Of Contact On Revenge Hostilities Among The Achuará Jívaro”, 89 [5]: http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/ehrafe/browseCultures.do?context=main#region=7 [6]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_rainforest |
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km squared. Latin Christendom was roughly equivalent to the maximum extent of the former Roman Empire? The rough limits of Christianity in this period: the area that is now northeastern Germany would be converted by force under Charlemagne, while the area south of Rome, in particular Calabria, Puglia, and Basilicata, was as much part of the Eastern Orthodox world as that of Latin Christendom, although these distinctions did not exist then.
|
||||||
|
km squared. The different polities controlling the coastal area shared many cultural traits: ’Akan states, historical complex of gold-producing forest states in western Africa lying between the Comoé and Volta rivers (in an area roughly corresponding to the coastal lands of the modern republics of Togo, Ghana, and, in part, Côte d’Ivoire). Their economic, political, and social systems were transformed from the 16th to the 18th century by trade with Europeans on the coast. Of the northern Akan (or Brong) states the earliest (established c. 1450) was Bono; of the southern the most important were Denkyera, Akwamu, Fante (Fanti), and Asante.’
[1]
’The Asante, however, are only the most successful of a number of people in southern Ghana, with offshoots in the Ivory Coast, who are closely related and probably have a single origin. To the south are groups like the Fante, Akwamu and Akyem, speaking virtually identical tonal languages (sometimes called Twi, or Akan) of the Kwa family and with whom the Asante share many elements of culture. Among these groups, for example, there are traces of the great matrilineal clans [...] formerly recognised in Asante, the practice of naming children according to the day of birth (for example, Kofi, a Friday-born male; Abena, a Tuesday-born girl), and many closely similar religious ideas and rituals. Some of these groups also retain traditions of a move to the south from the open areas north of the forest.’
[2]
’The common origin of the inhabitants of the Fanti districts, Asanti, and wherever the Akan language is spoken, has been already shown. The Customary Laws of the inhabitants of these places are in the main identical, and the national constitutions resemble each other in many points, although Asanti military organization had been developed in a greater degree.’
[3]
Hayford comments on cultural and linguistic similiarities between the Ashanti and Fante peoples: ’They speak the same language with only a difference of accent, such difference being a refinement upon whichever form of speech was the original type. It is probable the Ashanti type is the original, since it is reasonable to suppose that the coast tribes were detached from the Ashantis, and not vice versa. There is no tradition showing that the Fantis were ever a distinct and separate people from the Ashantis. On the other hand, there is historical evidence that, at the dawn of European intercourse with the Gold Coast, the Ashanti Union fully recognised the existence and independence of the Fanti Union; and the current of immigration southwards from the north of tribes now dwelling between Ashanti proper and Fanti proper, all of whom have in common the same language with the Ashantis and Fantis, lends weight to this striking fact.’
[4]
The scale of supracultural interaction was amplified with the intensification of colonial penetration. The Columbian Exchange and contact with European traders, missionaries, and colonizers had lasting effects on culture change in Southern Ghana. ’The sole reason for the presence of Europeans in West Africa was, and is even now, principally trade, and for the purposes of trade only were forts constructed and settlements founded, and the power and jurisdiction of the local rulers subsequently undermined. The trade consisted mostly in barter or exchange, nor was the sale of slaves inconsiderable.’
[5]
Given trading relations and other cross-cultural interactions among different West African societies, we have chosen to follow the eHRAF categorization of Akan societies as ’West Africans’
[6]
. Given trading relations and other cross-cultural interactions among different West African societies, we have chosen to follow the eHRAF categorization of Akan societies as ’West Africans’
[6]
. Wikipedia gives the size of West Africa as 5,112,903 km2
[7]
.
[1]: http://www.britannica.com/place/Akan-states [2]: McLeod, M. D. (Malcolm D.) 1981. “Asante”, 14 [3]: Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. “Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asanti, And Other Akan Tribes Of West Africa”, 2 [4]: Hayford, J. E. Casely (Joseph Ephraim Casely) 1970. “Gold Coast Native Institutions With Thoughts Upon A Healthy Imperial Policy For The Gold Coast And Ashanti”, 24 [5]: Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. "Fanti National Constitution [...], 74 [6]: http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/ehrafe/browseCultures.do?context=main#region=0 [7]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Africa |
||||||
|
km squared. ’The Asante, however, are only the most successful of a number of people in southern Ghana, with offshoots in the Ivory Coast, who are closely related and probably have a single origin. To the south are groups like the Fante, Akwamu and Akyem, speaking virtually identical tonal languages (sometimes called Twi, or Akan) of the Kwa family and with whom the Asante share many elements of culture. Among these groups, for example, there are traces of the great matrilineal clans [...] formerly recognised in Asante, the practice of naming children according to the day of birth (for example, Kofi, a Friday-born male; Abena, a Tuesday-born girl), and many closely similar religious ideas and rituals. Some of these groups also retain traditions of a move to the south from the open areas north of the forest.’
[1]
Sarbah agrees with this view: ’The common origin of the inhabitants of the Fanti districts, Asanti, and wherever the Akan language is spoken, has been already shown. The Customary Laws of the inhabitants of these places are in the main identical, and the national constitutions resemble each other in many points, although Asanti military organization had been developed in a greater degree.’
[2]
Hayford comments on cultural and linguistic similiarities between the Ashanti and Fante peoples: ’They speak the same language with only a difference of accent, such difference being a refinement upon whichever form of speech was the original type. It is probable the Ashanti type is the original, since it is reasonable to suppose that the coast tribes were detached from the Ashantis, and not vice versa. There is no tradition showing that the Fantis were ever a distinct and separate people from the Ashantis. On the other hand, there is historical evidence that, at the dawn of European intercourse with the Gold Coast, the Ashanti Union fully recognised the existence and independence of the Fanti Union; and the current of immigration southwards from the north of tribes now dwelling between Ashanti proper and Fanti proper, all of whom have in common the same language with the Ashantis and Fantis, lends weight to this striking fact.’
[3]
The scale of supracultural interaction was amplified with the intensification of colonial penetration: ’But in the mid-nineteenth century, and for the economic and political reasons outlined above, Asante society became much less confined, and much more permeable and accessible. I think that it would be missing the point to see this matter in the short term, and to interpret it from the viewpoint of - for example - formal conversion to Christianity or numbers of political or economic refugees. What, I think, is of paramount importance is that it was in this period that Asante became massively exposed to novel options, to different (and even contradictory) ways of looking at the world. These influences would take a long time to germinate and to bear fruit, but in retrospect we can see that this period represented a watershed in the understanding of values and beliefs. In cognitive terms - and we can see this prosopographically - the ‘generation’ of 1880 was further removed from that of 1830 than that ‘generation’ had been from any of its predecessors throughout Asante history (Wilks and McCaskie, 1973-79).’
[4]
The Columbian Exchange and contact with European traders, missionaries, and colonizers had lasting effects on culture change in Southern Ghana and were probably more important than Asanteman’s interactions with fellow Akan peoples. But given trading relations and other cross-cultural interactions among different West African societies, we have chosen to follow the eHRAF categorization of Akan societies as ’West Africans’
[5]
. Given trading relations and other cross-cultural interactions among different West African societies, we have chosen to follow the eHRAF categorization of Akan societies as ’West Africans’
[5]
. Wikipedia gives the size of West Africa as 5,112,903 km2
[6]
.
[1]: McLeod, M. D. (Malcolm D.) 1981. “Asante”, 14 [2]: Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. “Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asanti, And Other Akan Tribes Of West Africa”, 2 [3]: Hayford, J. E. Casely (Joseph Ephraim Casely) 1970. “Gold Coast Native Institutions With Thoughts Upon A Healthy Imperial Policy For The Gold Coast And Ashanti”, 24 [4]: McCaskie, T. C. 1983. “Accumulation, Wealth And Belief In Asante History: I. To The Close Of The Ninteenth Century”, 36 [5]: http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/ehrafe/browseCultures.do?context=main#region=0 [6]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Africa |
||||||
|
km squared. The Iban form part of the non-Muslim population of Borneo: ’Dayak, also spelled Dyak, Dutch Dajak, the non-Muslim indigenous peoples of the island of Borneo, most of whom traditionally lived along the banks of the larger rivers. Their languages all belong to the Indonesian branch of the Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) language family. Dayak is a generic term that has no precise ethnic or tribal significance. Especially in Indonesian Borneo (Kalimantan), it is applied to any of the (non-Muslim) indigenous peoples of the interior of the island (as opposed to the largely Malay population of the coastal areas). In Malaysian Borneo (Sarawak and Sabah), it is used somewhat less extensively and is often understood locally to refer specifically to Iban (formerly called Sea Dayak) and Bidayuh (formerly called Land Dayak) peoples. [...] Although lines of demarcation are often difficult to establish, the most prominent of the numerous Dayak subgroups are the Kayan (in Kalimantan usually called Bahau) and Kenyah, primarily of southeastern Sarawak and eastern Kalimantan; the Ngaju of central and southern Kalimantan; the Bidayuh of southwestern Sarawak and western Kalimantan; and the Iban of Sarawak.’
[1]
The Iban claim to originate in the Kapuas Basin, but migration was common: ’The Iban trace their origins to the Kapuas Lake region of Kalimantan. With a growing population creating pressures on limited amounts of productive land, the Iban fought members of other tribes aggressively, practicing headhunting and slavery. Enslavement of captives contributed to the necessity to move into new areas. By the middle of the 19th century, they were well established in the First and Second Divisions, and a few had pioneered the vast Rejang River valley. Reacting to the establishment of the Brooke Raj in Sarawak in 1841, thousands of Iban migrated to the middle and upper regions of the Rejang, and by the last quarter of the century had entered all remaining Divisions.’
[2]
But during the age of imperialism, contact with Europeans and Chinese traders and pirates became more common in Borneo: ’Modern European knowledge of Borneo dates from travelers who passed through Southeast Asia in the 14th century. The first recorded European visitor was the Franciscan friar Odoric of Pordenone, who visited Talamasim on his way from India to China in 1330. The Portuguese, followed by the Spanish, established trading relations on the island early in the 16th century. At the beginning of the 17th century the Portuguese and Spanish trade monopoly was broken by the Dutch, who, intervening in the affairs of the Muslim kingdoms, succeeded in replacing Mataram influence with their own. The coastal strip along the South China and Sulu seas was long oriented toward the Philippines to the northeast and was often raided by Sulu pirates. British interests, particularly in the north and west, diminished that of the Dutch. The Brunei sultanate was an Islamic kingdom that at one time had controlled the whole island but by the 19th century ruled only in the north and northwest. In 1841 Sarawak was split away on the southwest, becoming an independent kingdom ruled by the Brooke Raj. North Borneo (later Sabah) to the northeast was obtained by a British company to promote trade and suppress piracy, but it was not demarcated until 1912. Those losses left a much-reduced Brunei, which became a British protectorate in 1888.’
[3]
The island of Borneo also has a long history of interethnic mingling, extending supracultural interaction to non-Dayak communities on the island: ’Iban have lived near other ethnic groups with whom they have interacted. The most important of these societies have been the Malays, Chinese, Kayan, and during the Brooke Raj and the period of British colonialism, Europeans. The dynamic relations between Iban and these societies have produced profound changes in Iban society and culture.’
[2]
We follow eHRAF in grouping the island of Borneo with South-East Asia
[4]
. Wikipedia gives the geographical size of South-East Asia as 4,500,000 km2
[4]
. We follow eHRAF in grouping the island of Borneo with South-East Asia
[4]
. Wikipedia gives the geographical size of South-East Asia as 4,500,000 km2
[4]
.
[1]: http://www.britannica.com/topic/Dayak [2]: Vinson H. Sutlive, Jr. and John Beierle: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iban [3]: http://www.britannica.com/place/Borneo-island-Pacific-Ocean [4]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asia |
||||||
|
km squared. The Iban belong to the non-Muslim ’tribal’ population of Borneo: ’Dayak, also spelled Dyak, Dutch Dajak, the non-Muslim indigenous peoples of the island of Borneo, most of whom traditionally lived along the banks of the larger rivers. Their languages all belong to the Indonesian branch of the Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) language family. Dayak is a generic term that has no precise ethnic or tribal significance. Especially in Indonesian Borneo (Kalimantan), it is applied to any of the (non-Muslim) indigenous peoples of the interior of the island (as opposed to the largely Malay population of the coastal areas). In Malaysian Borneo (Sarawak and Sabah), it is used somewhat less extensively and is often understood locally to refer specifically to Iban (formerly called Sea Dayak) and Bidayuh (formerly called Land Dayak) peoples. [...] Although lines of demarcation are often difficult to establish, the most prominent of the numerous Dayak subgroups are the Kayan (in Kalimantan usually called Bahau) and Kenyah, primarily of southeastern Sarawak and eastern Kalimantan; the Ngaju of central and southern Kalimantan; the Bidayuh of southwestern Sarawak and western Kalimantan; and the Iban of Sarawak.’
[1]
’The Iban trace their origins to the Kapuas Lake region of Kalimantan. With a growing population creating pressures on limited amounts of productive land, the Iban fought members of other tribes aggressively, practicing headhunting and slavery. Enslavement of captives contributed to the necessity to move into new areas. By the middle of the 19th century, they were well established in the First and Second Divisions, and a few had pioneered the vast Rejang River valley. Reacting to the establishment of the Brooke Raj in Sarawak in 1841, thousands of Iban migrated to the middle and upper regions of the Rejang, and by the last quarter of the century had entered all remaining Divisions.’
[2]
During the colonial period, cross-cultural interactions intensified, but the island of Borneo has a long history of interethnic mingling, extending supracultural interaction to non-Dayak communities on the island: ’Iban have lived near other ethnic groups with whom they have interacted. The most important of these societies have been the Malays, Chinese, Kayan, and during the Brooke Raj and the period of British colonialism, Europeans. The dynamic relations between Iban and these societies have produced profound changes in Iban society and culture.’
[2]
We have followed eHRAF in grouping Borneo with South-East Asia
[3]
. Wikipedia gives the total size of South-East Asia as 4,500,000 km2
[4]
.
[1]: http://www.britannica.com/topic/Dayak [2]: Vinson H. Sutlive, Jr. and John Beierle: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iban [3]: http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/ehrafe/browseCultures.do?context=main#region=1 [4]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asia |
||||||
|
km squared. Very rough estimate.
|
||||||
|
km squared. The A’chik are usually grouped with the Bodo Peoples: ‘The Garo are a Tibeto-Burman-speaking matrilineal people, the bulk of whose population - some 240,000 - is to be found in the Garo Hills in the western part of India’s Meghalaya state. But there is also a much smaller Garo population - about 80,000 - living in Bangladesh territory, most of it in the far north of Mymensingh district on the Indo-Bangladesh border.’
[1]
The A’chik also interacted with Zamindar and British forces entering the hills area. Zamindars controlling neighbouring areas led expeditions into the Garo Hills, subjugating parts of them: ‘In pre-British days the areas adjacent to the present habitat of the Garo were under the Zeminders of Karaibari, Kalumalupara, Habraghat, Mechpara and Sherpore. Garos of the adjoining areas had to struggle constantly with these Zeminders. Whenever the employees of the Zeminders tried to collect taxes or to oppress the Garo in some way or other, they retaliated by coming down to the plains and murdering ryots of the Zeminders. In 1775-76 the Zeminders of Mechpara and Karaibari led expeditions to the hills near about their Zeminderies and subjugated a portion of what is at present the Garo Hills district. The Zeminder of Karaibari appointed Rengtha or Pagla, a Garo as his subordinate.’
[2]
‘After settling in the hills, Garos initially had no close and constant contact with the inhabitants of the adjoining plains. In 1775-76 the Zamindars of Mechpara and Karaibari (at present in the Goalpara and Dhubri districts of Assam) led expeditions onto the Garo hills. The first contact with British colonialists was in 1788, and the area was brought under administrative control in the year 1873.’
[3]
During the 19th century, the Indian subcontinent was subject to increasing colonial influence, ‘a process that culminated in the decline of the ruling Muslim elite and absorption of the subcontinent within the British Empire. Direct administration by the British, which began in 1858, effected a political and economic unification of the subcontinent. When British rule came to an end in 1947, the subcontinent was partitioned along religious lines into two separate countries-India, with a majority of Hindus, and Pakistan, with a majority of Muslims; the eastern portion of Pakistan later split off to form Bangladesh. Many British institutions stayed in place (such as the parliamentary system of government)’
[4]
We have followed eHRAF in the grouping of Bodo Peoples with South Asia
[5]
. We have used the figures provided in this non-academic source
[6]
.
[1]: Khaleque, Kibriaul 1988. “Garo Of Bangladesh: Religion, Ritual And World View”, 129 [2]: Majumdar, Dhirendra Narayan 1978. “Culture Change In Two Garo Villages”, 29 [3]: Roy, Sankar Kumar: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Garo [4]: http://www.britannica.com/place/India [5]: http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/ehrafe/browseCultures.do?context=main#region=1 [6]: http://www.tradingeconomics.com/south-asia/land-area-sq-km-wb-data.html |
||||||
|
km squared. A bit beyond the area of the Ganges valley.
|
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km squared. Region of Iraq, Iran, Central Asia, and Afghanistan.
|
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km squared. The area of the Mongolian Empire when it was split into its subdivisions of the Golden Horde, the Chagatai Khanate , Great Yuan and the Ilkhanate (purple), c. 1300. Calculated with Google Maps Area Calculator and map (below).
|
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km^2 very rough area of Roman Empire, plus extra territory where Roman ’cultural influence’ felt
|
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
-
|
||||||
|
-
|
||||||
|
km squared. In this period the figure should not include Parthian held territory. "Very soon, however, Andragoras was toppled by the Parthian chieftain Arsaces, who established the Parthian Empire in Iran, which undermined Bactrian control of overland trade along the Silk Road and effectively cut off Greeks in Bactria from the Greek world in the Mediterranean."
[1]
[1]: (www.cemml.colostate.edu/cultural/09476/afgh02-06enl.html) |
||||||
|
km squared. "The Byzantine writer Procopius in the early sixth century refers to them as white-bodied Huns ... However, there is no material or linguistic evidence that they were related to the Huns or Xiongnu at all, and the name has generally been interpreted as a mistaken identity given to a nomadic people whose culture resembled that of the Huns."
[1]
All the nomadic kingdoms that flourished in Bactria between the middle of the fourth century CE and the middle of the sixth century CE seem to have originated in a massive migration in the second half of the fourth century between 350 CE and 370 CE.
[2]
[1]: (West 2009, 275) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing. [2]: De la Vaissière, É. "Is there a Nationality of the Hephthalites." Bulletin of the Asia Institute 17 (2008): pp 119-132. |
||||||
|
km squared. Total area of Eurasian nomadic, Persian and Indian cultural regions would be on the scale of 9 million km2 (core regions of these areas).
|
||||||
|
km squared. Trading. Warfare.
|
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km squared
|
||||||
|
km squared
|
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km squared. Estimated by using Google Earth Pro to trace the boundaries of modern Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, and Indonesia.
|
||||||
|
km squared. 2.2 - 2.3 million km2.
|
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km squared. For this estimate I have used the approximate territorial extent of the Mali Empire at its largest.
|
||||||
|
km squared. For this estimate I have used the approximate territorial extent of the Mali Empire at its largest.
|
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km squared. As there are no distinct cultural differences between the material culture of communities in the valley of this period, the area of the valley has been coded here.
|
||||||
|
km squared. Icelandic cultural forms were derived from and now became politically part of the greater Scandinavian realm in the North Atlantic controlled by the Norwegian kings: ’The realm of the king of Norway, when Iceland became a part of it, was centred on the North Atlantic. It stretched from the west coast of Greenland to the Barents Sea in the north, and south to Göteborg and the Orkneys [...]. Purely in terms of distance, Iceland was not far from the middle of this domain; it was within a week’s travel of the main centres, the royal court at Bergen and the archiepiscoal sea at Trondheim. Just over two centuries later, the capital of the state was the city of Copenhagen on the Sound, and Iceland was at the westernmost point of the kingdom. It was King Haakon (1299-1319), son of Magnus, who turned the thrust of the state to the south and east. He moved his court from Bergen to Oslo, and arranged a marriage between his daughter Ingeborg and the brother of the Swedish king, when she was one year old. Their son, Magnus, inherited the thrones of Sweden and Norway in 1319, at the age of three. Norway as an autonomous kingdom had thus practically ceased to exist. The mid-14th century also saw the Balck Death sweep through Scandinavia. The disease was especially virulent in Norway, where as many as two-third of the population may have died in successive epidemics. In the period 1376-80 the boy king Olaf, son of Hakon, inherited the crowns of Denmark and Norway. Thus Iceland became subject to the Danish throne, a relationship that was not finally broken off until 1944. Olaf was also of the Swedish royal house (which ruled Finland too). It is easy to imagne the idea of a unified Nordic realm forming in the mind of Queen Margarethe, mother of the child king. But in 1387 Olaf suddenly died, aged 17. But Margarethe did not give up her plans. She contrived to have herself elected regent in all the Nordic kingdoms, and to have her six-year-old foster-son nominaated heir to all the thrones. In 1397 an attempt was made in the Swesih city of Karlmar to establish a permanent union of the states.’
[1]
Norway monopolized trade with Iceland due to competition from the Hansa in other regions: ’During years of suffering resulting from these recurring calamities some aid was derived from Norwegian trade with Iceland which was plied quite energetically, especially during the first half of the fourteenth century, since the Hanseatic League had closed all other avenues to Norwegian merchants. It had already been noted that King Haakon Magnusson made trade with Iceland a Norwegian monopoly. [...] In 1302 King Haakon made the regulation that the Hansa merchants should not trade north of Bergen, or carry on commerce with Iceland or any of the Norwegian dependencies, a stipulation which was repeated in 1306. This trade was retained by the government for the benefit of the crown.’
[2]
These cultural and commercial contacts suffered under the impact of the plague in mainland Scandinavia: ’This development of a new important line of export proved a valuable stimulus for commerce, and must have increased also the volume of Icelandic imports, as is shown by the lively intercourse between Norway and Iceland at that time. [...] But this very encouraging outlook in commercial affairs was suddenly destroyed by the Black Death, which in 1349 appeared in Norway and in a short time carried away one-third of the entire population of the kingdom. [...] the expeditions ot Greenland ceased almost completely, and the trade with Iceland and other dependencies was greatly reduced. [...] During the second half of the fourteenth century it appears from the annals fewer ships came to Iceland than formerly. Not till in 1387 is it again recorded that as many as eleven ships arrived in a single year. For Iceland, which was suffering from the effects of the great calamities which had lately befallen the country, this falling off of commerce was a serious misfortune.’
[3]
But the adoption of Christianity in the Commonwealth period also made Iceland part of the greater cultural sphere of Latin Christendom.
[4]
We have estimated the geographical extent of Latin Christendom to be around 5,600,000 km squared, including Northern, Western, and Central Europe as well as parts of Southern Europe. This figure is only an approximation and therefore open to re-evaluation.
[1]: Karlsson, Gunnar 2000. "A Brief History of Iceland", 22p [2]: Gjerset, Knut [1924]. "History of Iceland", 243 [3]: Gjerset, Knut [1924]. "History of Iceland", 244p [4]: Árni Daniel Júlíusson and Axel Kristissen 2017, pers. comm. to E. Brandl and D. Mullins |
||||||
|
km squared. The Orokaiva population is Melanesian, but Micronesian and Polynesian groups are present around the main island: ’Papua New Guinea’s social composition is extremely complex, although most people are classified as Melanesian. Very small minorities of Micronesian and Polynesian societies can be found on some of the outlying islands and atolls, and as in the eastern and northern Pacific these people have political structures headed by chiefs, a system seldom found among the Melanesian peoples of Papua New Guinea. The non-Melanesian portion of the population, including expatriates and immigrants, is small. At independence in 1975 the expatriate community of about 50,000 was predominantly Australian, with perhaps 10,000 people of Chinese origin whose ancestors had arrived before World War I.’
[1]
Some attempts at colonization predate the colonial period proper: ’Malay and possibly Chinese traders took spoils and some slaves from western New Guinea for hundreds of years. The first European visitor may have been Jorge de Meneses, who possibly landed on the island in 1526-27 while en route to the Moluccas. The first European attempt at colonization was made in 1793 by Lieut. John Hayes, a British naval officer, near Manokwari, now in Papua province, Indonesia. It was the Dutch, however, who claimed the western half of the island as part of the Dutch East Indies in 1828; their control remained nominal until 1898, when their first permanent administrative posts were set up at Fakfak and Manokwari.’
[2]
There may have been some contact with the Americas as well: ’The intensity and length of time of human occupation of the Highlands are evidenced by the extent of man-made landscapes in the region. Those discoveries are made even more interesting by the fact that the sweet potato, the present staple crop of the region, seems not to have arrived in the area from the Americas until 300 or 400 years ago. It is presumed that taro was the earlier staple, as it still is in some isolated Highlands basins such as that at Telefomin. The ancestors of the Polynesian peoples who migrated to the eastern Pacific passed through the Bismarck Archipelago in the past 5,000 years.’
[2]
New Guinea covers an area of around 821,400 square km: ’New Guinea, island of the eastern Malay Archipelago, in the western Pacific Ocean, north of Australia. It is bounded by the Pacific Ocean to the north, the Bismarck and Solomon seas to the east, the Coral Sea and Torres Strait to the south, and the Arafura Sea to the southwest. New Guinea is administratively divided into two parts: its western half comprises the Indonesian propinsi (or provinsi; provinces) of Papua and West Papua (collectively, formerly called Irian Jaya); and its eastern half comprises the major part of Papua New Guinea, an independent country since 1975. The second largest island in the world (after Greenland), New Guinea is about 1,500 miles (2,400 km) long (from northwest to southeast) and about 400 miles (650 km) wide at its widest (north to south) part. Area island, 317,150 square miles (821,400 square km).’
[3]
But Melanesia as a supra-cultural entity encompasses numerous islands and societies. As indicated above, we have opted for Melanesia as the most suitable entity. Wikipedia gives the geographical extent of Melanesia as 940,000 km squared
[4]
.
[1]: http://www.britannica.com/place/Papua-New-Guinea [2]: http://www.britannica.com/place/Papua-New-Guinea/History [3]: http://www.britannica.com/place/New-Guinea [4]: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanesien |
||||||
|
km squared. The Orokaiva population is Melanesian, but Micronesian and Polynesian groups are present around the main island: ’Papua New Guinea’s social composition is extremely complex, although most people are classified as Melanesian. Very small minorities of Micronesian and Polynesian societies can be found on some of the outlying islands and atolls, and as in the eastern and northern Pacific these people have political structures headed by chiefs, a system seldom found among the Melanesian peoples of Papua New Guinea. The non-Melanesian portion of the population, including expatriates and immigrants, is small. At independence in 1975 the expatriate community of about 50,000 was predominantly Australian, with perhaps 10,000 people of Chinese origin whose ancestors had arrived before World War I.’
[1]
During the colonial period, cross-cultural encounters with Europeans and East Asians emerged and intensified: ’In response to Australian pressure, the British government annexed Papua in 1888. Gold was discovered shortly thereafter, resulting in a major movement of prospectors and miners to what was then the Northern District. Relations with the Papuans were bad from the start, and there were numerous killings on both sides. The Protectorate of British New Guinea became Australian territory by the passing of the Papua Act of 1905 by the Commonwealth Government of Australia. The new administration adopted a policy of peaceful penetration, and many measures of social and economic national development were introduced. Local control was in the hands of village constables, paid servants of the Crown. Chosen by European officers, they were intermediaries between the government and the people. In 1951 an eruption occurred on Mount Lamington, completely devastating a large part of the area occupied by the Orokaiva.’
[2]
New Guinea covers an area of around 821,400 square km: ’New Guinea, island of the eastern Malay Archipelago, in the western Pacific Ocean, north of Australia. It is bounded by the Pacific Ocean to the north, the Bismarck and Solomon seas to the east, the Coral Sea and Torres Strait to the south, and the Arafura Sea to the southwest. New Guinea is administratively divided into two parts: its western half comprises the Indonesian propinsi (or provinsi; provinces) of Papua and West Papua (collectively, formerly called Irian Jaya); and its eastern half comprises the major part of Papua New Guinea, an independent country since 1975. The second largest island in the world (after Greenland), New Guinea is about 1,500 miles (2,400 km) long (from northwest to southeast) and about 400 miles (650 km) wide at its widest (north to south) part. Area island, 317,150 square miles (821,400 square km).’
[3]
We have opted for Melanesia as the most suitable entity, given how Melansia encompasses numerous islands and societies. Wikipedia gives the geographical extent of Melanesia as 940,000 km squared
[4]
.
[1]: http://www.britannica.com/place/Papua-New-Guinea [2]: Latham, Christopher S.: eHRAf Cultural Summary for the Orokaiva [3]: http://www.britannica.com/place/New-Guinea [4]: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanesien |
||||||
|
km squared. 1,250,000 squared kilometres.
|
||||||
|
km squared. 1,250,000 squared kilometres.
|
||||||
|
km squared. The Sakha may be of Turkic origin, but mingled culturally with other local tribes: ’The Sakha are thought to be an admixture of migrants from the Lake Baikal region with the aborigines of the Lena-probably mostly Evenk (Evenki), who have contributed much to their culture. Other evidence, however, points to a southern ancestry related to the Turkic-speaking tribes of the steppe and the Altai Mountains. The early history of the Sakha is little known, though epic tales date from the 10th century. In the 17th century they had peacefully assimilated with other northern peoples and consisted of 80 independent tribes, subdivided into clans.’
[1]
During the Czarist period, cross-cultural exchanges with Russian settlers and administrators were of primary importance: ’By 1620 a report had reached Tobolsk from the Mangaseya Cossacks of the Great (Lena) River and the Lena Yakut. In 1631 they descended by the Viliui River, a tributary of the Lena, to the Lena River and imposed tribute on the adjacent Yakut. In 1632 a party of Cossacks under the command of the Boyar’s son, Shakov, took tribute in sables from a clan of Viliui horse-breeding Yakut. The Viliui River farther up from its mouth was occupied by Tungus only. The northern boundary of the distribution of the Yakut at that time was the mouth of the Viliui. The whole Lena Valley from the mouth of the Viliui River to the south, at a distance of about 500 kilometers (or 710 miles) was occupied by Yakut. In their possession were also all the Lena islands of that region, rich in pasture lands. There is no definite information as to how far inland they penetrated at that period. We may admit, however, that the Yakut, being horse and cattle breeders, were hardly inclined to move into the dense forests far from the majority of their tribesmen, i.e., far from the Lena Valley. In the beginning of the seventeenth century the Yakut abode on the western banks of the Lena must have been the territory of the two present uluses of Yakutsk District, Namskij and Western Kangalassky. There, according to Yakut traditions, was the first place of refuge of their mythical forefather, the “Tatar” Elliei. From there a part of his nearest descendants could also have emigrated over the Lena islands to the eastern banks of the Lena River, where excellent pastures are as abundant as on the western banks.’
[2]
’By 1642 the Lena valley was under tribute to the czar; peace was won only after a long siege of a formidable Yakut fortress. By 1700 the fort settlement of Yakutsk (founded 1632) was a bustling Russian administrative, commercial, and religious center and a launching point for further exploration into Kamchatka and Chukotka. Some Yakut moved northeast into territories they had previously not dominated, further assimilating the Evenk and Yukagir. Most Yakut, however, remained in the central meadowlands, sometimes assimilating Russians. Yakut leaders cooperated with Russian commanders and governors, becoming active in trade, fur-tax collection, transport, and the postal system. Fighting among Yakut communities decreased, although horse rustling and occasional anti-Russian violence continued. For example, a Yakut Robin Hood named Manchari led a band that stole from the rich (usually Russians) to give to the poor (usually Yakut) in the nineteenth century. Russian Orthodox priests spread through Yakutia, but their followers were mainly in the major towns. By 1900 a literate Yakut intelligentsia, influenced both by Russian merchants and political exiles, formed a party called the Yakut Union. Yakut revolutionaries such as Oiunskii and Ammosov led the Revolution and civil war in Yakutia, along with Bolsheviks such as the Georgian Ordzhonikidze.’
[3]
Wikipedia provides 13,100,000 km squared as the total extent of Siberia
[4]
. We have opted for Siberia rather than Sakha as the supra-cultural entity in question, hence the large number. This remains open to re-evaluation.
[1]: http://www.britannica.com/topic/Sakha-people [2]: Jochelson, Waldemar 1933. “Yakut", 220 [3]: Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Yakut [4]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberia |
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km squared. The reach of Christendom in 600 CE was not limited to the boundaries of the Roman Empire at its greatest extent, but now included the expansion of Christianity to Ireland, Ethiopia, Persia, Central Asia and India.
|
||||||
|
km squared. Figure includes Anatolia, Transoxania, Persia, West Eurasian Steppe.
|
||||||
|
km squared. Figure includes Anatolia, Transoxania, Persia, West Eurasian Steppe.
|
||||||
|
km^2 Very rough area of Roman Empire, plus extra territory where Roman ’cultural influence’ felt
|
||||||
|
km squared. Cultural diffusion. Number refers to the estimated area of the Middle Mississippi region (taken from the map).
|
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km. Approximate scale of modern country of China (which covers roughly same area as ‘cultural zone’ of early imperial period).
|
||||||
|
km squared. Cultural diffusion, trade and warfare. Figure increases the maximum area of the Northern Wei state to include some of the Western Asian steppe (modern Mongolia). However, Northern Wei also, through Chinese majority population, interacted with the Chinese supra-cultural entity. This was most important toward the end of the era whilst the Nomadic supra-cultural interaction had preeminence at the beginning.
|
||||||
|
km squared. Rough area of Yuan Kingdom (17,000,000) or larger cultural area including all Mongolian Kingdoms (26,000,000+).
|
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km squared. Area including Cyrenacia to west of the Nile Delta?
|
||||||
|
km squared. The Chuuk islands form part of Micronesia: ’Micronesian culture, the beliefs and practices of the indigenous peoples of the ethnogeographic group of Pacific Islands known as Micronesia. The region of Micronesia lies between the Philippines and Hawaii and encompasses more than 2,000 islands, most of which are small and many of which are found in clusters. The region includes, from west to east, Palau (also known as Belau), Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands (which include Saipan), the Federated States of Micronesia (which include Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei, and Kosrae), the Marshall Islands (which include Enewetak, Bikini, Rongelap, Kwajalein, and Majuro), Nauru, and Kiribati (formerly the Gilbert Islands, and which includes Banaba, formerly Ocean Island). Located for the most part north of the Equator, Micronesia (from Greek mikros ‘small’ and nēsoi ‘islands’) includes the westernmost of the Pacific Islands.’
[1]
[1]: (Kahn, Fischer and Kiste 2017) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XHZTEDKE. |
||||||
|
km squared. Latin Christendom was roughly equivalent to the maximum extent of the former Roman Empire? The rough limits of Christianity in this period: the area that is now northeastern Germany would be converted by force under Charlemagne, while the area south of Rome, in particular Calabria, Puglia, and Basilicata, was as much part of the Eastern Orthodox world as that of Latin Christendom, although these distinctions did not exist then.
|
||||||
|
km squared. Latin Christendom was roughly equivalent to the maximum extent of the former Roman Empire? The rough limits of Christianity in this period: the area that is now northeastern Germany would be converted by force under Charlemagne, while the area south of Rome, in particular Calabria, Puglia, and Basilicata, was as much part of the Eastern Orthodox world as that of Latin Christendom, although these distinctions did not exist then.
|
||||||
|
km squared. Latin Christendom was roughly equivalent to the maximum extent of the former Roman Empire? The rough limits of Christianity in this period: the area that is now northeastern Germany would be converted by force under Charlemagne, while the area south of Rome, in particular Calabria, Puglia, and Basilicata, was as much part of the Eastern Orthodox world as that of Latin Christendom, although these distinctions did not exist then.
|
||||||
|
km squared. To the East, Christianity and Islam extended not only into the Middle East, but also as far as Central Asia, India and China. In Africa present as far south as Ethiopia.
|
||||||
|
km squared. This crude approximation reflects the substantial Jewish populations in Egypt and Mesopotamia.
|
||||||
|
km squared. This represents the roughly-estimated area of both the Northern and Southern Kingdoms. The precise extent of both is uncertain, as is the distinction between territory they controlled directly versus territory that was subject to them indirectly.
[1]
[1]: Estimated using Geacron for 900 BCE. |
||||||
|
km squared. The A’chik are usually classed with the Bodo Peoples: ‘The Garo are a Tibeto-Burman-speaking matrilineal people, the bulk of whose population - some 240,000 - is to be found in the Garo Hills in the western part of India’s Meghalaya state. But there is also a much smaller Garo population - about 80,000 - living in Bangladesh territory, most of it in the far north of Mymensingh district on the Indo-Bangladesh border.’
[1]
Since the inception of colonial rule, the Bodo populations of Northern India (see above) haven been subject to intensified cross-cultural interactions with newcomers of various origin: ‘It is again to be noted that hordes of outsiders have been pouring into the province of Assam since the coming of the English; many undesirable elements entered into her soil during the last great war and after independence of the country the current of the outsiders has become wider and it is still continuing unchecked. Some of these people have identified with the settlers of the soil and have even contributed much to the prosperity of the province but the only purpose of many of these outsiders is to create differences and mistrusts among her own people and thus exploit them fully. For the best interest of this small and backward state with many complicated problems, the entry of outsiders requires some regulation.’
[2]
The state of Meghalaya covers an area of roughly ’8,660 square miles (22,429 square km)’
[3]
, whereas Assam, which Meghalaya was formerly part of, now covers an area of ’30,285 square miles (78,438 square km).’
[4]
We have followed eHRAF in the grouping of Bodo Peoples with South Asia
[5]
. We have used the figures provided in this non-academic source
[6]
.
[1]: Khaleque, Kibriaul 1988. “Garo Of Bangladesh: Religion, Ritual And World View”, 129 [2]: Choudhury, Bhupendranath 1958. “Some Cultural And Linguistic Aspects Of The Garos”, iv [3]: http://www.britannica.com/place/Meghalaya [4]: http://www.britannica.com/place/Assam [5]: http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/ehrafe/browseCultures.do?context=main#region=1 [6]: http://www.tradingeconomics.com/south-asia/land-area-sq-km-wb-data.html |
||||||
|
km squared. Area that includes parts of modern day Turkey, Levant, Iraq, Iran, Caucasus, Transoxania and Afghanistan.
|
||||||
|
km squared. Perso-Islamic: "the synthesis that had been developed since the early Abbasid period, bringing ancient Iranian, pre-Islamic ideas of kingship into an Islamic context. The tenth century had witnessed the heyday of this synthesis, as under ethnically Iranian dynasties like the Buyids ancient titles like shahanshah (king of kings) were revived."
[1]
[1]: (Peacock 2015, 134-135) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press. |
||||||
|
km squared.
|
||||||
|
km squared. Perso-Islamic: ""Steppe traditions explain aspects of the internal functioning of the Seljuk state: the status of the Seljuk family; the bipartite division of the empire; the nature of the succession arrangements. However, with the exception of tughra, much of the public symbolism that the Seljuk rulers drew on was not Turkic, but rather derived from the Perso-Islamic tradition of rule ... For most of the Seljuk’s subjects, this Perso-Islamic tradition would have been a more meaningful sign of their rulers’ legitimacy than any steppe tradition."
[1]
[1]: (Peacock 2015, 134-135) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press. |
||||||
|
km squared. Latin Christendom was roughly equivalent to the maximum extent of the former Roman Empire? The rough limits of Christianity in this period: the area that is now northeastern Germany would be converted by force under Charlemagne, while the area south of Rome, in particular Calabria, Puglia, and Basilicata, was as much part of the Eastern Orthodox world as that of Latin Christendom, although these distinctions did not exist then.
|
||||||
|
km squared for T’ang China.
[1]
’the literature and music of Japan during the two centuries between the acceptance of Buddhism in 587 and the abandonment of the Nara capital in 784. These were years of vast and fundamental change in the island kingdom, of cultural forced feeding and vigorous new growth. In particular, they were the years when Japan became fully and for all time a participant in the high civilization of East Asia. Participation meant religious and philosophical orientations, an ideal of imperial rule, legal and administrative structures, techniques and styles of architecture, city planning, sculpture, painting, and music - all derived directly or indirectly from China and shared in one degree or another by the peoples on its periphery.’
[2]
[1]: Turchin, Peter, Adams, Jonathan M. and Hall, Thomas D. 2006. "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires". Journal of World-Systems Research 12 (2). p.222. [2]: Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.453 |
||||||
|
km squared for T’ang China.
[1]
’the literature and music of Japan during the two centuries between the acceptance of Buddhism in 587 and the abandonment of the Nara capital in 784. These were years of vast and fundamental change in the island kingdom, of cultural forced feeding and vigorous new growth. In particular, they were the years when Japan became fully and for all time a participant in the high civilization of East Asia. Participation meant religious and philosophical orientations, an ideal of imperial rule, legal and administrative structures, techniques and styles of architecture, city planning, sculpture, painting, and music - all derived directly or indirectly from China and shared in one degree or another by the peoples on its periphery.’
[2]
[1]: Turchin, Peter, Adams, Jonathan M. and Hall, Thomas D. 2006. "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires". Journal of World-Systems Research 12 (2). p.222. [2]: Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.453 |
||||||
|
km squared. Estimated by using Google Earth Pro to trace the boundaries of modern Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, and Indonesia.
|
||||||
|
km squared. Estimated by using Google Earth Pro to trace the boundaries of modern Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, and Indonesia.
|
||||||
|
km squared. Estimated by using Google Earth Pro to trace the boundaries of modern Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, and Indonesia.
|
||||||
|
km squared. "Permanent settlement in the delta, resulting in the formation of tells (large mounds consisting of the accumulated remains of ancient settlements), was initiated by people who entered the region during the last 500 years BC. They made pottery similar to that found at earlier sites along the southern fringe of the Sahara, suggesting that the immigrants were part of a southward movement of herders, fishermen, and cultivators that began with the accelerating desiccation of the Sahara and Sahel regions around 2000 BC."
[1]
[1]: (Reader 1998, 226) |
||||||
|
km squared. "Permanent settlement in the delta, resulting in the formation of tells (large mounds consisting of the accumulated remains of ancient settlements), was initiated by people who entered the region during the last 500 years BC. They made pottery similar to that found at earlier sites along the southern fringe of the Sahara, suggesting that the immigrants were part of a southward movement of herders, fishermen, and cultivators that began with the accelerating desiccation of the Sahara and Sahel regions around 2000 BC."
[1]
[1]: (Reader 1998, 226) |
||||||
|
km squared. Al Sa’di’s describes the territory of Jenne as "from Lake Debo in the north to the Volta Bend in the south, and borders on the Bandiagara highlands to the east. It is not clear whether Jenne’s territory was defined by political suzerainty, economic domination, or some other means entirely."
[1]
With Google area calculator this works out at about 25,000 km2.
[1]: (McIntosh and McIntosh 1981, 6) |
||||||
|
km squared. Al Sa’di’s describes the territory of Jenne as "from Lake Debo in the north to the Volta Bend in the south, and borders on the Bandiagara highlands to the east. It is not clear whether Jenne’s territory was defined by political suzerainty, economic domination, or some other means entirely."
[1]
With Google area calculator this works out at about 25,000 km2. "In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the first unambiguous evidence of North African or Islamic influences appears at Jenne-jeno in the form of brass, spindle whorls, and rectilinear houses. This occurs within a century of the traditional date of 1180 C.E. for the conversion of Jenne’s king (Koi) Konboro to Islam, according to the Tarikh es-Sudan."
[2]
[1]: (McIntosh and McIntosh 1981, 6) [2]: (Susan Keech McIntosh and Roderick J. McIntosh "Jenne-jeno, an ancient African city" http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500) |
||||||
|
km squared. Similar pottery styles and symbols of prestige were shared between the Valley of Oaxaca and neighbouring Tehuacan Valley during this period, suggesting some interaction or cultural "system" which extended the distance between the valleys.
[1]
[1]: Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p135-8 |
||||||
|
km squared. The territories of Wari and Tiwanaku: "From new urban capitals in central highland Peru and Lake Titicaca Bolivia, the distinctive religious icons diagnostic of the Middle Horizon reached the northern Peruvian mountains and coast. In the south they dispersed through the highlands, reaching southern Bolivia and the eastern valleys that descend to tropical forests - among them, Cochabamba with its immense mounds and idyllic conditions for maize agriculture. Northern Chile, at least as far south as San Pedro de Atacama, participated in this great interaction sphere, as did northwestern Argentina’s La Aguada cultural style [...]."
[1]
320,000 squared kilometers (extent of Wari polity) [2] + 400,000 squared kilometers (extent of Tiwanaku polity) [3] = 720,000 squared kilometers for the Middle Horizon. [1]: (Isbell in Silverman and Isbell 2008, 732) [2]: (Schreiber in Bergh 2012, 39) [3]: (Stanish 2003, 290) |
||||||
|
km squared. The Sakha may be of Turkic origin, but mingled culturally with other local tribes: ’The Sakha are thought to be an admixture of migrants from the Lake Baikal region with the aborigines of the Lena-probably mostly Evenk (Evenki), who have contributed much to their culture. Other evidence, however, points to a southern ancestry related to the Turkic-speaking tribes of the steppe and the Altai Mountains. The early history of the Sakha is little known, though epic tales date from the 10th century. In the 17th century they had peacefully assimilated with other northern peoples and consisted of 80 independent tribes, subdivided into clans.’
[1]
’Yakutia is a 3,100,000-square-kilometer territory (over four times the size of Texas), in eastern Siberia (the Soviet Far East). Located at approximately 56 to 71 degree north latitude and 107 to 152 east longitude, it is bounded by Chukotka to the northeast, Buriatia in the south, and the Evenk region to the west. Its northern coast stretches far above the Arctic Circle, along the East Siberian Sea, whereas its southern rim includes the Stanovoi Mountains and the Aldan plateau. Its most majestic river, the Lena, flows north along cavernous cliffs, into a long valley, and past the capital, Yakutsk. Other key river systems, where major towns have developed, include the Aldan, Viliui, and Kolyma. About 700,000 named rivers and streams cross Yakutia, which has some agricultural land, but is primarily nonagricultural taiga, with vast resources of gold, other minerals, gas, and oil. Tundra rims the north, except for forests along the rivers. Notorious for extremes of cold, long winters, and hot, dry summers, Yakutia has two locations that residents claim to be the "coldest on earth": Verkhoiansk and Oimiakon, where temperatures have dipped to -79 degrees Celsius. More typical are winters of 0 to -40 degrees Celsius and summers of 10 to 30 degrees Celsius.’
[2]
Wikipedia provides 13,100,000 km squared as the total extent of Siberia
[3]
. We have opted for Siberia rather than Yakutia as the supra-cultural entity in question, hence the large number. This remains open to re-evaluation.
[1]: http://www.britannica.com/topic/Sakha-people [2]: Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Yakut [3]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberia |
||||||
|
km squared. "Before the arrival of Iranian peoples in Central Asia, Sogdiana had already experienced at least two urban phases. The first was at Sarazm (4th-3rd m. BCE), a town of some 100 hectares has been excavated, where both irrigation agriculture and metallurgy were practiced (Isakov). It has been possible to demonstrate the magnitude of links with the civilization of the Oxus as well as with more distant regions, such as Baluchistan."
[1]
[1]: De la Vaissière, Encyclopedia Iranica online, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology |
||||||
|
km squared. The reach of Christendom in 600 CE was essentially global. In the early Muslim period the Muslims preferred to tax rather than to convert the Christians; in the ninth century the Christian realm included the Middle East. Theodore of Abu Qurra (d. c825 CE), born in northern Mesopotamia, "was the first important Christian theologian to write in Arabic."
[1]
In this period (8th-9th centuries CE) there were Christian communities in China.
[2]
[1]: (Lapidus 2012, 66-79) [2]: (Johannes Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences. Personal Communication |
||||||
|
km squared. To the East, Christianity extended not only into the Middle East, but also as far as Central Asia, India and China. Westernmost reach was Ireland. In Africa present as far south as Ethiopia.
[1]
During this period in the Middle East, partly in response to Byzantine military campaigns, conditions became less conducive for non-Muslims living under Islam. In 923 CE "a year-long wave of persecutions by Muslims against Christians swept through the Middle East. Atrocities were committed in Egypt, Syria and Palestine; in Ascalon, Caesarea and Jerusalem churches were destroyed."
[2]
[1]: (Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences. Personal Communication. [2]: (Haag 2012) Haag, M. 2012. The Tragedy of the Templars: The Rise and Fall of the Crusader States. Profile Books. |
||||||
|
km squared. To the East, Christianity extended not only into the Middle East, but also as far as Central Asia, India and China. Westernmost reach was Ireland. In Africa present as far south as Ethiopia.
[1]
Expansion to the north and west into Scandinavia and Russia in this period increased the total area under Christendom.
[1]: (Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences. Personal Communication. |
||||||
|
km squared. Cultural diffusion. Number refers to the estimated area of the Middle Mississippi region (taken from the map).
|
||||||
|
km squared. Cultural diffusion. Number refers to the estimated area of the Middle Mississippi region (taken from the map).
|
||||||
|
km squared. Greco-Persian area corresponding to Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan and Transoxania.
|
||||||
|
km.
|
||||||
|
-
|
||||||
|
km squared. Greco-Persian area corresponding to Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan and Transoxania.
|
||||||
|
km squared. The Hmong inhabited several Chinese provinces: ’The Ch’uan Miao are an ethnic group living on the borders of Szechwan, Kweichow, and Yunnan Provinces, western China. The country is very mountainous with numerous peaks rising 3,000 to 6,000 feet above sea level. There are many streams, forests, waterfalls, perpendicular or overhanging cliffs, natural caves and natural bridges, and deepholes or pits where the water disappears into the bowels of the earth. While the roads between the Chinese towns and villages are generally paved with stones, most of the roads are narrow footpaths up and down the steep mountainsides or through fields and forests.’
[1]
This factor combines with their cultural heterogeneity to make the identification of a scale of supracultural interaction more difficult: ’The various Miao groups are for the most part an unstratified agricultural people found in the uplands of several provinces of China and related to the Hmong of Southeast Asia. They are distinguished by language, dress, historical traditions, and cultural practice from neighboring ethnic groups and the dominant Han Chinese. They are not culturally homogeneous and the differences between local Miao cultures are often as great as between Miao and non-Miao neighbors. The term "Miao" is Chinese, and means "weeds" or "sprouts." Chinese minority policies since the 1950s treat these diverse groups as a single nationality and associate them with the San Miao Kingdom of central China mentioned in histories of the Han dynasty (200 BC-AD 200). About half of China’s Miao are located in Guizhou Province. Another 34 percent are evenly divided between Yunnan Province and western Hunan Province. The remainder are mainly found in Sichuan and Guangxi, with a small number in Guangdong and Hainan. Some of the latter may have been resettled there during the Qing dynasty. The wide dispersion makes it difficult to generalize about ecological settings. Miao settlements are found anywhere from a few hundred meters above sea level to elevations of 1,400 meters or more. The largest number are uplands people, often living at elevations over 1,200 meters and located at some distance from urban centers or the lowlands and river valleys where the Han are concentrated. Often, these upland villages and hamlets are interspersed with those of other minorities such as Yao, Dong, Zhuang, Yi, Hui, and Bouyei.’
[2]
’Miao is the official Chinese term for four distinct groups of people who are only distantly related through language or culture: the Hmu people of southeast Guizhou, the Qo Xiong people of west Hunan, the A-Hmao people of Yunnan, and the Hmong people of Guizhou, Sichuan, Guangxi, and Yunnan (see China: People). [...] The Miao are related in language and some other cultural features to the Yao; among these peoples the two groups with the closest degree of relatedness are the Hmong (Miao) and the Iu Mien (Yao).’
[3]
’The customs and histories of the four Miao groups are quite different, and they speak mutually unintelligible languages. Closest linguistically to the Hmong are the A-Hmao, but the two groups still cannot understand each others’ languages. Of all the Miao peoples, only the Hmong have migrated out of China.’
[3]
Chinese authors tend to group them with other non-Chinese ’hill people’ inhabiting several East and South East Asian countries: ’The migration of the Miao in recent times, due to the repeated disturbances in Kweichow, has reached eastward only to the west of the Yüan-chiang River, and northward to the south bank of the Yangtze River. Since further on in their two directions the terrain becomes less hilly and is more densely populated, there is no land for the Miao to move into. Even if there were land available, the damp, hot climate would be unsuitable for them to live in. The spread of the Miao southeastward was along the Nan Ling mountains 25 and stopped west of the Kwei-chiang River. Their movement westward met no obstacles because Yunnan, Tonkin, and Laos are all spacious and thinly populated, and now they have reached the east bank of the Nu-chiang. The emigration of the Miao is the latest among the movements of the peoples of the southwest. Yunnan and Indochina, although spacious and thinly populated as stated, have their arable areas in the mountains already occupied by the Lolo and other hill people. When the Miao arrived last they could not find extensive hilly country for living together as a tribe, and were forced to scatter, each to find his own way. Furthermore, being refugees from political turmoil, they lacked organization and definite destinations. In general, depending on hilly areas where they could settle down, they moved farther and farther, and thus their area became increasingly extensive.’
[4]
Hmong communities nevertheless interacted culturally with Chinese urban and agricultural populations: ’Several millions of these other peoples still live in the southern provinces of China. They are the Tai, the Lo-lo, and the Miao. Like the Chinese peasants of southern China, all of these people are Iron-Age agriculturalists, growing rice and other grains, keeping a few pigs and cattle, living in villages of a few hundred persons, and trading their surplus agricultural products and handicraft products in the market towns for cutting tools and other manufactured objects. The general economic adjustment to the environment is the same for all of these peoples. The differences consist chiefly of language and minor social usages. A difference of another order, however, sharply divides the dominant from the minor peoples - the hsien towns and the provincial cities are all chiefly inhabited and run by Chinese. Thus the Miao, Lo-lo, and Tai have no class of artisans’ and traders, no urban populations; they are practically all peasants. Being dependent on the Chinese for their manufactured products, their material culture shows few visible differences from the Chinese. A western traveler might easily go through one of their villages while the women were away in the fields without knowing that he had seen non-Chinese people, for their faces look no different, and the costumes of the men are the same, while the houses, though perhaps poorer, do not deviate from ordinary rural Chinese architectural standards except for the layout of the village. Unless he were a very persistent and hardy traveler, however, the chances that he would reach such a village are remote, for these people inhabit refuge areas, and their homes are tucked away in the higher valleys and on the less fertile mountain slopes. Along the larger rivers, the main highroads of China, the traveler would see only Chinese.’
[5]
Despite of these differences between Hmong groups and the Chinese majority, eHRAF groups Hmong societies with East Asia
[6]
. According to Wikipedia, East Asia covers an area of 11,839,074 km2
[7]
.
[1]: Graham, David Crockett 1954. “Songs And Stories Of The Ch’Uan Miao", 1 [2]: Diamond, Norma: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Miao [3]: http://www.britannica.com/topic/Miao [4]: Ling, Shun-sheng, Yifu Ruey, and Lien-en Tsao 1947. “Report On An Investigation Of The Miao Of Western Hunan”, 45 [5]: Mickey, Margaret Portia 1947. “Cowrie Shell Miao Of Kweichow”, viia [6]: http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/ehrafe/regionsCultures.do#region=1 [7]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asia |
||||||