Middle Bronze Age in Central Anatolia

AcemhÖyük 56ha at 200 person per ha would be a town of 11,000.
large settlements (e.g. Kaneš estimated range 50ha, AcemhÖyük 56ha, Karahōyük Konya 50 ha, Alişar 28ha) ^[1]

[1]: Michel C. 2011. The karum Peeriod on the Plateau. [in:] S. McMahon (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia. New York: Oxford University Press, pg. 317

157km long journey from Kaniš to Açemhöyük would be a polity of 25,000 if 157 represented a side of a square. Using 25k as upper limit of a range.

Turkey-in-Asia contained 1.5 million by the chalcolithic (2500 BC) and 3 million "during the course of the full Bronze age". ^[1] If we assume 2 million for this period that is about 2.67 persons per KM2 across the whole area of Anatolia. Multiplied by the territory we could have a polity population range of between 50,000-100,000.

[1]: (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 133) McEvedy, Colin. Jones, Richard. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin Books Ltd. London.

^[1]

1. large settlements (e.g. Kaneš estimated range 50ha, AcemhÖyük 56ha, Karahōyük Konya 50 ha, Alişar 28ha) ^[2]
2. small villages and farmsteads 0,1-5 ha (very poorly investigated, data about their existance comes from field walking surveys, not regular excavation) ^[3]

[1]: Dercksen J. G. 2004. Some Elements of Old Anatolian Sofiety in Kaniš. [in:] J. G. Dercksen (ed.) Assyria and beyond: studies presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen. Leiden: NINO, pg. 137-138

[2]: Michel C. 2011. The karum Peeriod on the Plateau. [in:] S. McMahon (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia. New York: Oxford University Press, pg. 317

[3]: Yener K. A. 2007. The Anatolian Middle Bronze Age kingdoms and Alalakh: Mukish, Kanesh and trade. Anatolian studies 57, pg. 153

Very little is known about religious system during Old Assyrian Colony period in Anatolian kingdoms. Published cuneiform tablets often mention names of gods, but as the role of temples in the economic system is unclear, and hardly ever spoken about, there is not much trace of religious hierarchy. Priests are called kumurum and knowledge about their existence comes from tablet on which they are mentioned as witnesses to the economic transactions. ^[1]

[1]: Dercksen J. G. 2004. Some Elements of Old Anatolian Sofiety in Kaniš. [in:] J. G. Dercksen (ed.) Assyria and beyond: studies presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen. Leiden: NINO, pg. 139

1. Chief
2.3.4. Individual soldier
The same situation as in the case of priests - cuneiform tablets do not inform about military hierarchy in Anatolian kingdoms. The only thing we have is a position of ’chief of man’ called rabi şabim, who is thought to have been responsible for workforce in harvesting and building, and it is assumed also in military force. ^[1]

[1]: Dercksen J. G. 2004. Some Elements of Old Anatolian Sofiety in Kaniš. [in:] J. G. Dercksen (ed.) Assyria and beyond: studies presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen. Leiden: NINO, pg. 151-153

1. ruler (royal couple) called rubā’um (’prince’) and rubātum (’princess’) ^[1]
2. higher officials, such as ’chief of the stairway’, who could correspond with the main ruler; rabi sikkitim (chief of man) ^{[2] [3]} , who was responsible for military and trade;’chief sceptcr bearer, ’chief cup bearer’ and ’chief of tablets’ were directly serving the king. ’The chief of workers’ took care and supervised craftsmen, who were also organised under a chief of their profession (e.g. ’chief of blacksmith’ etc).3. Scribe?
rest of the population, lower class hupšum, mostly shepherds and farmers ^{[4] [5]} .
NOTE: Barjamovic points to evidence for a "complex administrative hierarchy", ^[6] and though he does not provide quite enough information to infer the exact number of "levels" this hierarchy might have had, it seems reasonable to infer more than three.

[1]: Dercksen J. G. 2004. Some Elements of Old Anatolian Sofiety in Kaniš. [in:] J. G. Dercksen (ed.) Assyria and beyond: studies presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen. Leiden: NINO, pg. 137

[2]: Dercksen J. G. 2004. Some Elements of Old Anatolian Sofiety in Kaniš. [in:] J. G. Dercksen (ed.) Assyria and beyond: studies presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen. Leiden: NINO, pg. 151

[3]: Diakonof L.M. 1979. Some remarks on I 568. ArOr 47, pg. 40

[4]: Michel C. 2011. The karum Peeriod on the Plateau. [in:] S. McMahon (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia. New York: Oxford University Press, pg. 323, 326

[5]: Dercksen J. G. 2004. Some Elements of Old Anatolian Society in Kaniš. [in:] J. G. Dercksen (ed.) Assyria and beyond: studies presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen. Leiden: NINO, pg. 146

[6]: (Barjamovic 2011: 325) Barjamovic G. 2011. A Historical Geography of Anatolia in the Old Assyrian Colony Period. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press

^[1]
As was stated above, there are only some traces concerning priests, who occur as witnesses to the economic transactions. Because they might have witnessed such legal acts, their position must have been well, even highly situated among MBA Anatolian society ^{[2] [1]} .

[1]: Dercksen J. G. 2004. Some Elements of Old Anatolian Sofiety in Kaniš. [in:] J. G. Dercksen (ed.) Assyria and beyond: studies presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen. Leiden: NINO, pg. 139

[2]: Barjamovic G. 2011. A Historical Geography of Anatolia in the Old Assyrian Colony Period. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, pg. 141, 206, 230, 318

The only thing we have is a position of ’chief of man’ called rabi şabim, who is thought to have been responsible for workforce in harvesting and building, and it is assumed also in military force. ^[1]

[1]: Dercksen J. G. 2004. Some Elements of Old Anatolian Sofiety in Kaniš. [in:] J. G. Dercksen (ed.) Assyria and beyond: studies presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen. Leiden: NINO, pg. 151-153

There are some buildings, like ’official storage building’ from Kültepe, which are supposed to have something to do with polity-managemgent activities ^[1] .

[1]: Bachluber Ch. 2012. Bronze Age Cities On Plain and the Plains and the Highlands. pg. 587 [5]

^[1]

[1]: Barjamovic G. 2011. A Historical Geography of Anatolia in the Old Assyrian Colony Period. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, pg. 325-326

There is no evidence that would surely confirm the existence of a legal code in Anatolian kingdoms in second millenium BC. However, researchers have investigated legal transaction texts from Kültepe, and deduced some single roles, such as obligatory services of arhalüm and unuššum. There is also some indication concerning people or group of people, who were responsible for supervising performance of some obligatory services. ^[1]

[1]: Dercksen J. G. 2004. Some Elements of Old Anatolian Society in Kaniš. [in:] J. G. Dercksen (ed.) Assyria and beyond: studies presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen. Leiden: NINO, pg. 137-174

^[1]

[1]: Barjamovic G. 2011. A Historical Geography of Anatolia in the Old Assyrian Colony Period. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, pg. 263 [6]

System is known from cuneiform texts, but has not been yet unearthened during excavations.

For example, Kaman-Kalehöyük, where large assemblages were found, while at other sites excavations mostly unearth household storages ^[1] .

[1]: Fairbairn A., Omura S. 2005. Archaeological identification and significance of ÉSAG (agricultural storage pits) at Kaman-Kalehöyük, central Anatolia. Anatolian Studies 55. pg. 15-23

^[1]

[1]: Barjamovic G. 2011. A Historical Geography of Anatolia in the Old Assyrian Colony Period. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, pg. 15-25

^[1]

[1]: Barjamovic G. 2011. A Historical Geography of Anatolia in the Old Assyrian Colony Period. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, pg. 396

^[1]

All texts are written in Old Assyrian dialect of Akkadian and they refer mostly to economic transactions and resemble private correspondence ^[1] .

[1]: Dercksen J. G. 2004. Some Elements of Old Anatolian Sofiety in Kaniš. [in:] J. G. Dercksen (ed.) Assyria and beyond: studies presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen. Leiden: NINO, pg. 137-139

^[1]

All texts are written in Old Assyrian dialect of Akkadian and they refer mostly to economic transactions and resemble private correspondence ^[1] .

[1]: Dercksen J. G. 2004. Some Elements of Old Anatolian Sofiety in Kaniš. [in:] J. G. Dercksen (ed.) Assyria and beyond: studies presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen. Leiden: NINO, pg. 137-139

likely what bureaucrats would do with writing

The calendar used was related to harvesting during summer (cereals) and autumn (grape). ^[1]

[1]: Bachluber Ch. 2012. "Bronze Age Cities On Plain and the Plains and the Highlands". pg. 577

Metals according to documents from Kültepe-Kanish dating to the Old Assyrian Colony Period. In Yalcun, Ü. (Ed.), Anatolian Metal III. Der Anschnitt, Beiheft 18. (pp. 17-34). Bochum: Deutsches Bergbau-Museum;

textiles, silver, tin,copper, gold, iron ^[1]

[1]: Dercksen J. G.(2005). Metals according to documents from Kültepe-Kanish dating to the Old Assyrian Colony Period. In Yalcun, Ü. (Ed.), Anatolian Metal III. Der Anschnitt, Beiheft 18. (pp. 17-34). Bochum: Deutsches Bergbau-Museum

Had bureaucrats. Full-time messengers would have been useful.

Settlements have continuity with previous polity. Karataş-Semayük ^[1]

[1]: Sagona A. and P. Zimansky, "Ancient Turkey", USA 2009, p. 197.

not found in settlements

<e.g. Kaneš ^[1]

[1]: Hamblin W. J. 2006. Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC: Holy Warriors at the Dawn of History. USA-Canada: Routledge. pg. 293

‘judging from the fact that in the Late Bronze I (Period V B, 1750-1600 b.c.e.), a town gate was built in the Arslantepe earthen wall defense system, flanked by two bipartite quadrangular towers, which was highly reminiscent of similar central Anatolian gates, such as those at AliŞar or Boğazköy (Palmieri 1978). ... this fortification system arrangement remained unchanged throughout the imperial Hittite and Neo-Hittite periods’

Technology not yet available

not found in settlements

Technology not yet available

not found in settlements

not found in settlements

Settlements have continuity with previous polity. Alişar Hüyük ^[1] . A fortification wall was constructed, and only 10 meters of fortification found on the terrace were excavated. One of these walls was set behind the other and rectangular-shaped bastions were constructed onto it. ^[2]

[1]: Çevik Ö., "The Emergence of Different Social Systems in Early Bronze Age Anatolia: Urbanisation versus Centralisation", In: "Anatolian Studies", Vol. 57, Transanatolia: Bridging the Gap between East and West in the Archaeology of Ancient Anatolia (2007), p. 136.

[2]: Joukowsky M. S., "Early Turkey. An Introduction to the Archeology of Anatolia from Prehistory through the Lydian Period", USA 1996, p. 170.

The earliest evidence of steel use are dated to 1800 BC and site Kaman-Kalehoyuk in Central Anatolia, but there is lack of traces of steel in Early Elam Period ^[1]

[1]: Akamuna 2005, 147-158

Not yet the Iron Age

Arslantepe had particularly good metallurgy, copper swords and spearheads ^[1]

[1]: James D. Muhly, ‘Metals and Metallurgy’, The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000-323 BCE), Edited by Gregory McMahon and Sharon Steadman, 2011, pp. 864-867

The bronze was produced locally, by Anatolian metalworkers, to make tools, weapons, and household objects, many of which have been found in the houses and graves of the kārum: spearheads, axes, daggers, forks, needles, nails, and chains ^[1]

[1]: Cécile Michel, ‘The Kārum Period on the Plateau’, The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000-323 BCE), Edited by Gregory McMahon and Sharon Steadman, 2011, p. 325

Not invented yet

Not invented yet

4000 BCE in the Middle East and southeastern Europe: "sling, dagger, mace, and bow are common weapons". ^[1]

[1]: (Gabriel 2007, xii) Richard A Gabriel. 2007. Soldiers’ Lives Through History: The Ancient World. Greenwood Press. Westport.

There is no information about bows, but during excavations arrowheads are often found in such contexts as dwellings, graves and workshops ^[1] . "Composite bows are known from both Mesopotamia and the Great Steppe from the III millennium BCE. The Scythian bow was different from the Mesopotamian one primarily in its overall dimensions - it was smaller so that it could be used from the horseback. At the same time, self bows were also in use, but because of their large size they were not suitable for use by horse riders." ^[2] Self bows still in general use after composite bow introduced. ^[2]

[1]: Yıldırım T. 2010. Weapons of Kültepe. [in:] Kulakoğlu F., Kangal S. (eds.) Anatolia’s Prologue, Kültepe Kanesh Karum, Assyrians in Istambul. Istambul. pg. 121

[2]: Sergey A Nefedov, RAN Institute of History and Archaeology, Yekaterinburg, Russia. Personal Communication to Peter Turchin. January 2018.

Bone harpoons found for a much earlier period. The harpoon could have been used for hunting or warfare. No evidence yet of a javelin weapon designed specifically for or in active use for warfare.

Bone harpoons found for a much earlier period. The harpoon could have been used for hunting or warfare. No evidence yet of a javelin weapon designed specifically for or in active use for warfare.

Not invented yet

Not invented yet

Not invented yet

Composite bows were present in nearby Mesopotamia, even Eastern Anatolia had become separated from this culture by around 2500 BCE: from about 2500 BC ‘From that moment onward the history of the site and of the region was completely separated from the history of the Syro-Mesopotamian areas and that of the southernmost region of the Middle/Upper Euphrates Valley; it now began to gravitate toward the eastern Anatolian world.’ ^[1] "The composite bows spread into Palestine around 1800 BCE and were introduced into Egypt by the Hyksos in 1700 BCE." ^[2] Possibly introduced toward the end of this period?

[1]: Marcella Frangipane, ‘Arslantepe-Malatya: A Prehistoric and Early Historic Center in Eastern Anatolia’, The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000-323 BCE), Edited by Gregory McMahon and Sharon Steadman, 2011, p. 984

[2]: (Roy 2015, 20) Kaushik Roy. 2015. Warfare in Pre-British India - 1500 BCE to 1740 CE. Routledge. London.

Composite bows were present in nearby Mesopotamia, even Eastern Anatolia had become separated from this culture by around 2500 BCE: from about 2500 BC ‘From that moment onward the history of the site and of the region was completely separated from the history of the Syro-Mesopotamian areas and that of the southernmost region of the Middle/Upper Euphrates Valley; it now began to gravitate toward the eastern Anatolian world.’ ^[1] "The composite bows spread into Palestine around 1800 BCE and were introduced into Egypt by the Hyksos in 1700 BCE." ^[2] Possibly introduced toward the end of this period?

[1]: Marcella Frangipane, ‘Arslantepe-Malatya: A Prehistoric and Early Historic Center in Eastern Anatolia’, The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000-323 BCE), Edited by Gregory McMahon and Sharon Steadman, 2011, p. 984

[2]: (Roy 2015, 20) Kaushik Roy. 2015. Warfare in Pre-British India - 1500 BCE to 1740 CE. Routledge. London.

Composite bows were present in nearby Mesopotamia, even Eastern Anatolia had become separated from this culture by around 2500 BCE: from about 2500 BC ‘From that moment onward the history of the site and of the region was completely separated from the history of the Syro-Mesopotamian areas and that of the southernmost region of the Middle/Upper Euphrates Valley; it now began to gravitate toward the eastern Anatolian world.’ ^[1] "The composite bows spread into Palestine around 1800 BCE and were introduced into Egypt by the Hyksos in 1700 BCE." ^[2] Possibly introduced toward the end of this period?

[1]: Marcella Frangipane, ‘Arslantepe-Malatya: A Prehistoric and Early Historic Center in Eastern Anatolia’, The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000-323 BCE), Edited by Gregory McMahon and Sharon Steadman, 2011, p. 984

[2]: (Roy 2015, 20) Kaushik Roy. 2015. Warfare in Pre-British India - 1500 BCE to 1740 CE. Routledge. London.

weapon of the Americas

"The mace was among man’s oldest weapons (at least 6000 B.C.E. at Catal Huyuk)". ^[1] 4000 BCE in the Middle East and southeastern Europe: "sling, dagger, mace, and bow are common weapons". ^[2]

[1]: (Gabriel 2002, 51) Richard A Gabriel. 2002. The Great Armies of Antiquity. Praeger. Westport.

[2]: (Gabriel 2007, xii) Richard A Gabriel. 2007. Soldiers’ Lives Through History: The Ancient World. Greenwood Press. Westport.

Swords, along with axes (of various shapes) and daggers are the most popular weapons in Anatolia during MBA period, but only two swords have been so far unearthed. ^[1] The traditional view is that sword use - as a secondary weapon - dates from about the seventeenth century BCE. ^[2] although earlier swords are also known in Susiana.

[1]: Yıldırım T. 2010. Weapons of Kültepe. [in:] Kulakoğlu F., Kangal S. (eds.) Anatolia’s Prologue, Kültepe Kanesh Karum, Assyrians in Istambul. Istambul. pg. 117, 120

[2]: (Gabriel 2002, 26-27) Richard A Gabriel. 2002. The Great Armies of Antiquity. Praeger. Westport.

Quite big, bronze forks were used as weapons, according to statements of great Near Eastern archaeologists, T. Ǒzgüç and K. Bittel. Forks were mostly found as grave offerings during the karum II period. ^[1] Spears ^[1] The bronze was produced locally, by Anatolian metalworkers, to make tools, weapons, and household objects, many of which have been found in the houses and graves of the kārum: spearheads, axes, daggers, forks, needles, nails, and chains ^[2]

[1]: Yıldırım T. 2010. Weapons of Kültepe. [in:] Kulakoğlu F., Kangal S. (eds.) Anatolia’s Prologue, Kültepe Kanesh Karum, Assyrians in Istambul. Istambul. pg. 121

[2]: Cécile Michel, ‘The Kārum Period on the Plateau’, The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000-323 BCE), Edited by Gregory McMahon and Sharon Steadman, 2011, p. 325

inferred from previous polity ^[1]

[1]: Stronach D., "The Development and Diffusion of Metal Types in Early Bronze Age Anatolia", In: "Anatolian Studies", Vol. 7 (1957), p. 121.

The best known precious object from Assyrian Colony Period karum, is closely tied to Anitta’s, the king of Kussara, who conquered a kingdom of Kanesh. We can assume that this precious object may resemble daggers used in battles ^[1] , which are also found, in burial and workshop contexts. ^[2] The bronze was produced locally, by Anatolian metalworkers, to make tools, weapons, and household objects, many of which have been found in the houses and graves of the kārum: spearheads, axes, daggers, forks, needles, nails, and chains ^[3] 4000 BCE in the Middle East and southeastern Europe: "sling, dagger, mace, and bow are common weapons". ^[4]

[1]: Bryce T. 2013. The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia: The Near East from the Early Bronze Age to the Fall of the Persian Empire. Routledge. pg. 365-366

[2]: Yildirim T. 2010. Weapons of Kültepe. [in:] Kulakoğlu F., Kangal S. (eds.) Anatolia’s Prologue, Kültepe Kanesh Karum, Assyrians in Istambul. Istambul. pg. 120

[3]: Cécile Michel, ‘The Kārum Period on the Plateau’, The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000-323 BCE), Edited by Gregory McMahon and Sharon Steadman, 2011, p. 325

[4]: (Gabriel 2007, xii) Richard A Gabriel. 2007. Soldiers’ Lives Through History: The Ancient World. Greenwood Press. Westport.

Axes have been found in the context of metallurgical workshops. We may then assume that they were not only objects for sale, but might have also been used on the battlefield. MBA Anatolian axes had many various shapes. ^{[1] [2]} The bronze was produced locally, by Anatolian metalworkers, to make tools, weapons, and household objects, many of which have been found in the houses and graves of the kārum: spearheads, axes, daggers, forks, needles, nails, and chains ^[3]

[1]: Bachluber Ch. 2012. ‘’Bronze Age Cities On Plain and the Plains and the Highlands’’. pg. 585

[2]: Yıldırım T. 2010. Weapons of Kültepe. [in:] Kulakoğlu F., Kangal S. (eds.) Anatolia’s Prologue, Kültepe Kanesh Karum, Assyrians in Istambul. Istambul. pg. 118-120

[3]: Cécile Michel, ‘The Kārum Period on the Plateau’, The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000-323 BCE), Edited by Gregory McMahon and Sharon Steadman, 2011, p. 325

^[1]

[1]: Barjamovic G. 2011. ‘’A Historical Geography of Anatolia in the Old Assyrian Colony Period’’. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, pg. 378

Technology not found in archaeological evidence until much later

use as Pack Animals appears by around 7000 BC onward ^[1]

[1]: (Leverani 2014, 41) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.

no evidence of use in warfare appears for this period

Technology not found in archaeological evidence until much later

No information in the archaeological evidence for this time and code has yet to receive an expert check

No information in the archaeological evidence for this time and code has yet to receive an expert check

Technology not yet available

Technology not yet available

This time is earlier than the earliest reference in Greece c1600 BCE: "Early Mycenaean and Minoan charioteers wore an arrangement of bronze armor that almost fully enclosed the soldier, the famous Dendra panoply." ^[1] It is also earlier than the earliest reference in Anatolia, the Hittite period. ^[2]

[1]: (Gabriel and Metz 1991, 51) Richard A Gabriel. Karen S Metz. 1991. The Military Capabilities of Ancient Armies. Greenwood Press. Westport.

[2]: Bryce T. (2007) Hittite Warrior, Oxford: Osprey Publishing, pp. 15

No information in the archaeological evidence for this time and code has yet to receive an expert check

Technology not yet available

Earliest reference for present we currently have is for the Hittites. ^[1] In Egypt helmets were probably first worn by charioteers in the 18th Dynasty c1500 BCE. ^[2] It’s technically possible they could have been used earlier than the mid-2nd millennium BCE in both Egypt and in Antolia as the earliest known helmet dates to 2500 BCE in Sumer. Gabriel (2002) claims after this time use of helmets became standard issue ^[3] , but possibly he was only referring to the Mesopotamian region.

[1]: Bryce T. (2007) Hittite Warrior, Oxford: Osprey Publishing, pp. 15-16

[2]: (Hoffmeier 2001) J K Hoffmeier in D B Redford. ed. 2001. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. Oxford.

[3]: (Gabriel 2002, 22) Richard A Gabriel. 2002. The Great Armies of Antiquity. Praeger. Westport.

Iron chain mail not introduced until the third century BCE, probably by Celtic peoples. ^[1]

[1]: (Gabriel 2002, 21) Richard A Gabriel. 2002. The Great Armies of Antiquity. Praeger. Westport.

Technology not yet available

No information in the archaeological evidence for this time and code has yet to receive an expert check

naval trade occurred in previous polity, close continuity would suggest this technology was not lost ^[1]

[1]: Sharon Steadman, ‘The Early Bronze Age on the Plateau’, The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000-323 BCE), Edited by Gregory McMahon and Sharon Steadman, 2011, p. 235

No information in the archaeological evidence for this time and code has yet to receive an expert check