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Spanish invaders exploited the gold mines in the region, employing some Shuar before the uprisings of 1599: ’The first reported white penetration of Jivaro territory was made in 1549 by a Spanish expedition under Hernando de Benavente. Later expeditions of colonists and soldiers soon followed. These newcomers traded with the Jivaro, made peace pacts with them, and soon began to exploit the gold found in alluvial or glacial deposits in the region. Eventually the Spaniards were able to obtain the co-operation of some of the Indians in working the gold deposits, but others remained hostile, killing many of the colonists and soldiers at every opportunity. Under the subjection of the Spaniards, the Jivaro were required to pay tribute in gold dust; a demand that increased yearly. Finally, in 1599, the Jivaro rebelled en masse, killing many thousands of Spaniards in the process and driving them from the region. After 1599, until nearly the middle of the nineteenth century, Jivaro-European relations remained intermittent and mostly hostile. A few missionary and military expeditions entered the region from the Andean highlands, but these frequently ended in disaster and no permanent colonization ever resulted. One of the few "friendly" gestures reported for the tribe during this time occurred in 1767, when they gave a Spanish missionizing expedition "gifts", which included the skulls of Spaniards who had apparently been killed earlier by the Jivaro (Harner, 1953: 26). Thus it seems that the Jivaros are the only tribe known to have successfully revolted against the Spanish Empire and to have been able to thwart all subsequent attempts by the Spaniards to conquer them. They have withstood armies of gold seeking Inkas as well as Spaniards, and defied the bravado of the early conquistadors.’
[1]
Mining continued in the Ecuadorian period as well, but it appears that miners were recruited from settlers rather than Indians: ’In 1901, the Huambisas were still the scourge of the Santiago Basin, forcing the precipitous retreat of some American miners who had ascended the river in hopes of locating the famed placer gold deposits. In contrast, Aguarunas and Antipas, whom the miners encountered on the Alto Marañón, were found to be inordinately hospitable, especially “fond of European trade goods” and eager to exchange garden produce, salt, and even gold for them in some instances (Von Hassel 1902/II:68, 70-71).’
[2]
[1]: Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro [2]: Bennett Ross, Jane 1984. “Effects Of Contact On Revenge Hostilities Among The Achuará Jívaro", 92 |
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Spanish invaders exploited the gold mines in the region, employing some Shuar before the uprisings of 1599: ’The first reported white penetration of Jivaro territory was made in 1549 by a Spanish expedition under Hernando de Benavente. Later expeditions of colonists and soldiers soon followed. These newcomers traded with the Jivaro, made peace pacts with them, and soon began to exploit the gold found in alluvial or glacial deposits in the region. Eventually the Spaniards were able to obtain the co-operation of some of the Indians in working the gold deposits, but others remained hostile, killing many of the colonists and soldiers at every opportunity. Under the subjection of the Spaniards, the Jivaro were required to pay tribute in gold dust; a demand that increased yearly. Finally, in 1599, the Jivaro rebelled en masse, killing many thousands of Spaniards in the process and driving them from the region. After 1599, until nearly the middle of the nineteenth century, Jivaro-European relations remained intermittent and mostly hostile. A few missionary and military expeditions entered the region from the Andean highlands, but these frequently ended in disaster and no permanent colonization ever resulted. One of the few "friendly" gestures reported for the tribe during this time occurred in 1767, when they gave a Spanish missionizing expedition "gifts", which included the skulls of Spaniards who had apparently been killed earlier by the Jivaro (Harner, 1953: 26). Thus it seems that the Jivaros are the only tribe known to have successfully revolted against the Spanish Empire and to have been able to thwart all subsequent attempts by the Spaniards to conquer them. They have withstood armies of gold seeking Inkas as well as Spaniards, and defied the bravado of the early conquistadors.’
[1]
Mining continued in the Ecuadorian period as well, but it appears that miners were recruited from settlers rather than Indians: ’In 1901, the Huambisas were still the scourge of the Santiago Basin, forcing the precipitous retreat of some American miners who had ascended the river in hopes of locating the famed placer gold deposits. In contrast, Aguarunas and Antipas, whom the miners encountered on the Alto Marañón, were found to be inordinately hospitable, especially “fond of European trade goods” and eager to exchange garden produce, salt, and even gold for them in some instances (Von Hassel 1902/II:68, 70-71).’
[2]
[1]: Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro [2]: Bennett Ross, Jane 1984. “Effects Of Contact On Revenge Hostilities Among The Achuará Jívaro", 92 |
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Silver and gold mines in the Americas. “The mines of New Spain were now increasing their production of silver, thanks to receipts of Spanish mercury from Almaden. Production figures of five million pesos a year at the opening of the century doubled by the 1720s, and remained at that level during the reign of Philip V.”(Kamen 2003: 448) Kamen, Henry. 2003. Empire: How Spain Became a World Power, 1492-1763. New York: Harper Collins. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YRK2VXUS “From 1700, bullion that came to Cadiz from the Spanish colonies (including gold from the increased production in New Granada) was supplemented by substantial quantities of gold that came to Lisbon from Brazil. Spain continued to be the centre of an international market, but its role in respect of colonial wealth had changed radically: it now became a centre for the re-export of precious metals. From 1640 to 1763, almost all the bullion reaching the peninsula was re-exported to other European countries and to Asia.”(Kamen 2003: 449) Kamen, Henry. 2003. Empire: How Spain Became a World Power, 1492-1763. New York: Harper Collins. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YRK2VXUS “The royalists of Upper Peru defeated an army sent against them in 1811, thereby retaining control of the silver mines.”(Maltby 2009: 100) Maltby, William S. 2009. The Rise and Fall of the Spanish Empire. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SUSVXWVH
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“Important for the financial structure of all Habsburg lands was the mining of ores, primarily silver and copper. The mines of the Erzgebirge in northwestern Bohemia, in Central and southern Bohemia, in the High and Low Tatra of Hungary in present-day Slovakia, and at an earlier time in Tyrol played an important role. Gold-mining, as for instance in Rauris (Salzburg), was never of major significance.”
[1]
Silver in particular was one of the greatest sources of wealth in Europe.
[2]
[3]
[1]: (Kann 1974: 120) Kann, Robert A. 1974. A History of the Habsburg Empire 1526-1918. Los Angeles: University of California Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RP3JD4UV [2]: Fichtner 2003: 8, 18. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QQ77TV4K. [3]: Curtis 2013: 101. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TRKUBP92. |
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Donetsk, in 1872 an ironworks was founded there by a Welshman, John Hughes (from whom the town’s pre-Revolutionary name Yuzivka was derived), to produce iron rails for the growing Russian rail network. Later steel rails were made. The plant used coal from the immediate vicinity, and both coal mining and steel making developed rapidly. By 1914 there were four metallurgical plants, 10 coal pits, and a population of about 50,000. Under the Soviet Union, Yuzivka was renamed Stalino and, in 1961, Donetsk. Heavy destruction in World War II led to postwar modernization and an increase in industry, which resulted in substantial and sustained economic growth.
[1]
[1]: “Donetsk | Facts, Region, & Occupation | Britannica.” Last modified October 29, 2023. Accessed November 24, 2023. https://www.britannica.com/place/Donetsk-Ukraine.. Zotero link: RNGEFS2D |
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"The rights possessed by owners of vil granted to donees were on water (jala); waste-land (sthala); iron and salt-mines (lohalavanakara); fisheries (matsyakara); ravines saline soil (osara); groves of madhuka and mango (madhukamra tika), grass and pasture land, (trna-yutigocaraparyantah)."
[1]
[1]: (Kumar 2015: 33) Kumar, S. 2015. Rural Society and Rural Economy in the Ganga Valley during the Gahadavalas. Social Scientist , May–June 2015, Vol. 43, No. 5/6 (May–June 2015), pp. 29-45. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PQEZNJ3T/library |
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Coral mining had been commonplace for the use of housing and building materials. “Coral was transported by camel carts and burned to make lime for buildings, a wise use of traditional skills that was more economical than using imported cement.”
[1]
[1]: (Mukhtar 2003, 51) Mukhtar, Mohamed H. 2003. Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/J8WZB6VI/collection |
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“Extensive mines have been identified at the top of the mountain opposite Harlaa, Gara Harfattu (1888m asl; 9°29′ 46.212′′ north, 41°54′ 22.68′′ east). These mines comprise both vertical and horizontal shafts, a technique for following mineral veins known in other contemporaneous Islamic contexts.”
[1]
[1]: (Insoll et al. 2021, 496) Insoll, Timothy et al. 2021. ‘Material Cosmopolitanism: the entrepot of Harlaa as an Islamic gateway to eastern Ethiopia’. Antiquity. Vol 95: 380. Pp 487-507. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/GGUW3WRZ/collection |
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“With Sarki Muhammad Korau (1445-95), who was probably the founder of a new dynasty, we are on firmer historical ground. While still at Durbi, Korau identified an important meeting point of several trade routes, the site of an iron-mine and an important shrine, known as Bawada; and as sarki, he established there a new walled city (birni) called Katsina.”
[1]
“To this day blacksmithing is an important occupation in Hausa towns and villages, and hoes remain a substantial proportion of the manufactures. No longer, however, does the smith rely on local mining and smelting, but rather on scrap and imported iron. Even in the nineteenth century it is doubtful whether Hausaland was self-sufficient in wrought iron, and memories exist of its being brought long distances, especially from ’Gwari’ country to the south. But some instances of recent Hausa smelting are recorded from south Katsina and Zamfara,22 and workable medium-quality laterite ores are common enough.”
[2]
[1]: Niane, D. T., & Unesco (Eds.). (1984). Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. Heinemann; University of California Press: 273. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ERZKPETN/collection [2]: Sutton, J. E. G. “Towards a Less Orthodox History of Hausaland.” The Journal of African History, vol. 20, no. 2, 1979, pp. 179–201: 186. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/AJQ6EGCH/collection |
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In the 16th century, Ivan IV declared the prospecting and mining of ores a state monopoly and in 1567-1568 he sent an expedition to search for ores. He also allocated extensive lands to Y. A. Stroganov in the Kama region with permission to use iron ores.
[1]
By the 1730s the southeast Urals was the largest mining and metallurgical region of the Russian Empire. Mining operations in Siberia proper also began in the early eighteenth century, first in the northern foothills of the Altai Mountains (iron, copper, lead, zinc) and the silver mines near Nerchinsk east of Lake Baikal. Then gold was discovered in the Yenisey River basin in 1838-39, starting the Siberian gold rush. Up to 1876 the Yenisey basin had the largest goldfields in the empire, producing more than 20 percent of Russia’s gold. After that year, the Lena River goldfields predominated, by 1908 employing some thirty thousand people. [2] [1]: Veniamin Vasilʹevič Alekseev and Dmitrij Vasilʹevič Gavrilov, Metallurgija Urala s drevnejšich vremen do našich dnej (Moskva: Nauka, 2008). Zotero link: HBTSSX85 [2]: “Siberian Mining | Development | Articles and Essays | Meeting of Frontiers | Digital Collections | Library of Congress,” web page, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA, accessed January 8, 2024, https://www.loc.gov/collections/meeting-of-frontiers/articles-and-essays/development/siberian-mining/. Zotero link: 3BHHBZNM |
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Mining activity took place in the Western Zhou period.
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there is an oblique reference to mining in the predynastic on the Naqada IA-IIB polity sheet.
[1]
[1]: Franzmeier, F. 2007. "Wells and Cisterns in Pharaonic Egypt: The Development of a Technology as a progress of Adaptation to Environmental Situations and Consumers’ Demands".[in:] Griffin, K. [ed.]. Current Research in Egyptology 2007. Oxford: Oxbow Books. pg: 40, 48. |
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"France possesses no precious metal resources and little copper. Iron ores are abundant, and there are regional deposits of lead, zinc, and coal. All of these were exploited during the Middle Ages. Evidence for ironworking exists from Merovingian France onward."
[1]
[1]: (Hall in Kibler et al 1995, 1177) |
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"France possesses no precious metal resources and little copper. Iron ores are abundant, and there are regional deposits of lead, zinc, and coal. All of these were exploited during the Middle Ages. Evidence for ironworking exists from Merovingian France onward."
[1]
[1]: (Hall in Kibler et al 1995, 1177) |
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See reference
[1]
[1]: (http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#) |
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"France possesses no precious metal resources and little copper. Iron ores are abundant, and there are regional deposits of lead, zinc, and coal. All of these were exploited during the Middle Ages. Evidence for ironworking exists from Merovingian France onward."
[1]
[1]: (Hall in Kibler et al 1995, 1177) |
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Gold was a major factor in commercial relations with Europeans and the payment of tribute: ’In ancient times the Omanhene held the whole unoccupied land in his territory as trustee for the people, and as they increased so this public land was brought under cultivation. The chiefs of the different towns were actually placed in charge of the unoccupied land in the districts, or were considered as caretakers for the Omanhene. When a tribe was conquered it became subject of the conqueror’s stool; these people continued to hold and enjoy the lands under cultivation; but used forests and unoccupied land as public property attached to the [Page 16] stool of the Omanhene. * Besides the public land, the Omanhene has attached to his stool family land in the [Page 17] occupation of his family; his subsequent deposition does not affect the possession of the family. The Omanhene can live and reside and farm on any unoccupied part of his territory without the leave or permission of the sub-ruler, who holds it as caretaker, but he cannot sell or lease it without the concurrence of such sub-ruler. He is entitled to an Ebusã of the sub-ruler’s Ebusã. His immediate followers or household servants may mine for him, but no tribute is payable to the sub-ruler. The subordinate captains (Safuhene, pl. Asafuhene) are bound to obey the commands of the Ohene and pay tribute to him of all gold gotten from gold workings. It is not usual to pay Ebusã to the Ohene or Safuhene on the ordinary [Page 18] washing for alluvial gold. Ebusã is only paid when work is being done in a goldfield, or when one has found an unusually large quantity of gold or discovered a large nugget, or persons are systematically mining.’
[1]
’In all the sea-coast towns the head ruler collected or received one-fourth part of the fish caught by fishermen. Tolls were collected on traders passing through the district; he was also entitled to receive tribute of a third, and in some cases of a fourth, of gold recovered by mining, rubber, and other products. Finders of large nuggets were bound to send the same to the head ruler on penalty of capital punishment. Three hundred years ago persons who recovered gold by mining or otherwise could not retain for their own use more than a half. The Ohene is also entitled to receive the tail of every elephant slain in his district, and he alone can use it. One-fourth part of game killed on his family land has to be sent to him.’
[2]
’The claim of the Portuguese to be, in comparatively modern times, the first European discoverers of and settlers in Gold Coast is supported by more reliable and satisfactory evidence. According to several Portuguese writers including de Barros, Alphonso, the king of Portugal, farmed out in 1469 for five years the Guinea trade to one Fernando Gomez, at the rate of five hundred ducats, or about £138 17 s. 9 d.; the said Gomez having undertaken on his part to explore five hundred leagues, that is, three hundred miles each year, starting from Sierra Leone. In 1471 he directed that the coast-line should be discovered as it lay. This was done by Joao de Santaren and John de Scobar, who, skirting the coast past what is now Liberia, rounded Cape Palmas, went as far as the island of St. Thomas, and on the return voyage discovered Odena in five degrees of latitude. Fernando Po island was discovered in 1472 by Fernando da Poo. And so much gold was found at Odena that they called that port El Mina, afterwards known as the Castle, or Mina. These men also found gold at Chama, and it is said that Gomez opened a gold-mine at Approbi near Little Kommenda, the Aldea des Terres of the Portuguese.’
[3]
[1]: Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. "Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asant, And Other Akan Tribes of West Africe Together With A Brief Account Of The Discovery Of The Gold Coast By Portuguese Navigators, A Short Narration of Early English Voyages, And A Stody Of The Rise of British Gold Coast Jurisdiction, Etc., Etc.", 16p [2]: Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. “Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asanti, And Other Akan Tribes Of West Africa Together With A Brief Account Of The Discovery Of The Gold Coast By Portuguese Navigators, A Short Narration Of Early English Voyages, And A Study Of The Rise Of British Gold Coast Jurisdiction, Etc., Etc.”, 29 [3]: Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. “Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asanti, And Other Akan Tribes Of West Africa Together With A Brief Account Of The Discovery Of The Gold Coast By Portuguese Navigators, A Short Narration Of Early English Voyages, And A Study Of The Rise Of British Gold Coast Jurisdiction, Etc., Etc.”, 55 |
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Quarries.
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Quarries.
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present: quarries
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"Apart from these, Mayarattha had important areas such as Ratnapura in the Sabaragamuva Province, well known for gems and other precious stones." THESIS 228
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’All the gold and silver mines in the nation, including the Sado gold mine and the Iwami silver mine, were placed under Hideyoshi’s direct control; the amount of fees he received from these in 1598 came to more than 3,397 pieces of gold and 79,415 pieces of silver’
[1]
[1]: Hall, John Whitney (ed.). 1991.The Cambridge History of Japan. Vol. 4. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.p.61 |
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‘Gold was an important Japanese export to China during the Kamakura era and much of the Muromachi era (via Ryukyu).During the second half of the sixteenth century, however, these gold mines were depleted and this metal was the first whose export was prohibited.
[1]
[1]: Kowner, Rotem. 2014. From White to Yellow: The Japanese in European Racial Thought, 1300-1735. Vol. 63. McGill-Queen’s Press-MQUP. |
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While mineral resources were scant in Phoenicia proper, leading Phoenicians to set up mining or trading operations as far away as Spain and Britain, Phoenicians frequently quarried the stone for their city constructions on-site or nearby. For example, several quarries have been identified on the harbor island of Zire, off the coast of Sidon.
[1]
[1]: Marriner/Morhange/Doumet-Serhal (2006). |
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Gold mining (?) from Bambuk and Bure on the upper Niger.
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stone quarries, copper mines
[1]
Iron Age from 600 BCE in West Africa (e.g. Benue valley in Nigeria and upper Niger River) "the development and spread of the basic technologies of metal production and the forging and smithing of metal tools, notably in iron."
[2]
[1]: (Posnansky 1981, 723, 719) [2]: (Davidson 1998, 8) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London. |
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Sources only describe residential sites.
[1]
[1]: Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York. |
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Sources only describe residential sites.
[1]
[1]: Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York. |
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So far, no mention of publicly organized mining has been made in the sources reviewed.
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According to Alan Covey: "See Dennis Ogburn and Ian Farrington’s work. There are local diorite and limestone quarries near Cuzco, as well as the Huaccoto andesite quarry. Keep in mind that we still don’t know a lot about pre-imperial architecture in Cuzco."
[1]
[1]: (Alan Covey 2015, personal communication) |
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At the Kestel-Göltepe site, there was a tin mine. It was a vast complex, where 4500 cubic meters of ore were extracted, often through precariously narrow tunnels, using only fire and stone hammers to shatter the ore. The size of these galleries allude to a production of some 115 tons of tin.
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quarries for stone for stone walls
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"The attractive honey-colored flint from the Grand Pressigny mines was used to make long blades and daggers and was also traded in the form of cores, being distributed deep into northern and central Europe and being buried in single graves with AOO beakers or battle-axes."
[1]
[1]: (McIntosh 2006, 62) |
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|
"the extraction of minerals also increased considerably during the Kushan period. Metal ores, semi-precious and precious stones and other minerals were regularly mined. Mining developed rapidly, especially in the eastern regions of Central Asia. It is known from the written sources that iron, gold, silver and nephrite were mined in the mountains of Ferghana and Sogdiana, silver in Ilak, copper in Karamazar, rubies in Badakhshan and lapis lazuli in Bactria."
[1]
[1]: (Mukhamedjanov 1994, 270) Mukhamedjanov, A R. Economy and Social System in Central Asia in the Kushan Age. in Harmatta J, Puri B N and Etemadi G F eds. 1994. History of civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. UNESCO. |
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|
"The pottery, however, is said to show differences from Erligang, an observation for which the most obvious explanation would be an indigenous population ruled by an intrusive Erligang elite. Since ancient copper mines are known at places 100 km or so further south, Panlongcheng might have been a fortress securing trade routes that brought metal to the north."
[1]
"The military power of the more northern cities of Yuanqu (phase II), Dongxiafeng (phase II), and Fucheng (phase II) allowed the control of salt and copper mines in the area and the control of other polities located there."
[2]
[1]: (Bagley 1999, 170) [2]: (Yuan 2013, 332) |
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|
"The mountainous region near Donglongshan not only possessed jade deposits (Fang 1995:157), but also was rich in copper, lead, and tin deposits (Huo 1993). Similarly, Panlongcheng, which was in close proximity to abundant copper deposits in the middle Yangzi River valley, has yielded evidence of bronze making dating to the Erlitou period (Wang and Chen 1987:74). Copper was likely smelted near the mining areas, and elites in the regional centers may have played the major role in transporting copper ingots to the primary center at Erlitou (Liu and Chen 2003)."
[1]
"Although small-scale bronze metallurgy was likely taking place in many places in northern and western China, including the Central Plains area, and all of these sites would have had to procure copper, lead, and tin from somewhere, we have neither data on contemporaneous mining sites nor evidence for the routes by which metals reached the various large- and small- scale workshops."
[2]
[1]: (Liu and Chen 2008, 167) [2]: (Campbell 2014, 61) |
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|
’The government gave special attention to the development of copper mining, establishing several offices of the mint (jusenshi) in western Japan where the copper mines were located.’
[1]
[1]: Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.435 |
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|
Mines had been established under Qing sponsorship already: ’The region’s mineral resources were crucial in garnering the state’s attention. In the eighteenth century the need to keep pace with rising imports of silver from abroad intensified the exploitation of copper mines. Under Qing government sponsorship, copper mining increased tenfold, and from 1700 until 1850 the region’s copper output accounted for a full one-fifth of the world’s production. Meanwhile, the mining boom attracted more migrants, swelling the area’s population fourfold during the same 150 years. Migrants from the north and east developed a metropolitan culture that remained far removed from that of the rural agriculturalists, many of whom were non-Han (Naquin and Rawski 1987:199-202).’
[1]
[1]: Schein, Louisa 2000. “Minority Rules: The Miao And The Feminine In China’s Cultural Politics", 6 |
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|
"An enormous mine (2 square kilometers) with smelting facilities roughly 3,000 years old was discovered on Mt. Verdigris [42]."
[1]
[1]: (Bavarian 2005) Bavarian, Behzad. July 2005. Unearthing Technology’s Influence on the Ancient Chinese Dynasties through Metallurgical Investigations, California State University. Northridge. http://library.csun.edu/docs/bavarian.pdf |
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|
"As the top Sui leader in the South, Yangdi was ordered by his father to set up five furnaces to manufacture coins in Yangzhou. Aware of the inadequate money supply in the South, he requested that furnaces be set up at copper mines in E Prefecture (with its seat in Wuchang, Hubei)."
[1]
[1]: (Xiong, Victor Cunrui. 2012. Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynaty: His Life, Times, and Legacy. New York: SUNY Press, 174) |
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|
Evidence of calcite-alabaster quarrying in ’Abud Cave that predated this polity and also continued after it. Additional quarrying of materials such as sandstone attested to in the Samra Caves near Jericho.
[1]
Given the scale of stone building in this polity, additional quarrying is practically certain—though at least some of the stone used in e.g. Samaria was quarried on-site.
[1]: Frumkin et al. (2014) |
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|
From earliest times people of American bottom were visiting a number of sources. This is not mentioned in current literature. Two examples: Wyandot, in the Ohio river valley and Mill Creek just south of the American bottom.
|
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|
Gold mines. "The effects of the colonial experience and enforced changes in indigenous lifestyles are recorded in a series of documents that bridge the gap between the pre-Hispanic and contemporary Tairona. One of the earliest accounts, dated 1578 and transcribed by Carl Langebaek (1990), is a record of demographic collapse, with the abandonment of the coastal lands to the Spanish and the retreat of the remaining Indians to small settlements in the sierra. The gold mines were no longer exploited"
[1]
Stone quarries: "The “piedras” (stones) sector of the town has many beautifully built structures, but its main characteristic is the use of large boulders as foundation for terraces and rings. Much of the stone used to build Ciudad Perdida was quarried in this area, where laminar schist boulders such as the one on the right in the photograph can be found strewn about the slopes of the hill. "
[2]
[1]: (Bray 2003, 308) [2]: (Giraldo 2014) |
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|
’Mining has been prevalent throughout Japanese history. In particular, during the 16th to the 18th centuries, a number of gold and silver mines were opened, including the famous Sado Island mines. These mines produced tremendous amounts of gold and silver, which aided the income of the Tokugawa shogunate.’
[1]
[1]: Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.58. |
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|
Ecuadorian settlers established gold mines in the region, but the material suggests that settlers rather than Indians were employed there: ’In 1901, the Huambisas were still the scourge of the Santiago Basin, forcing the precipitous retreat of some American miners who had ascended the river in hopes of locating the famed placer gold deposits. In contrast, Aguarunas and Antipas, whom the miners encountered on the Alto Marañón, were found to be inordinately hospitable, especially “fond of European trade goods” and eager to exchange garden produce, salt, and even gold for them in some instances (Von Hassel 1902/II:68, 70-71).’
[1]
[1]: Bennett Ross, Jane 1984. “Effects Of Contact On Revenge Hostilities Among The Achuará Jívaro", 92 |
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|
there is an oblique reference to mining in the predynastic on the Naqada IA-IIB polity sheet.
[1]
[1]: Franzmeier, F. 2007. "Wells and Cisterns in Pharaonic Egypt: The Development of a Technology as a progress of Adaptation to Environmental Situations and Consumers’ Demands".[in:] Griffin, K. [ed.]. Current Research in Egyptology 2007. Oxford: Oxbow Books. pg: 40, 48. |
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|
"The Third Intermediate Period experienced a decline in quarrying and mining expeditions, but such activities are revitalized in the Late Period. For instance, Wadi Hammamat contained only one early Third Intermediate Period royal text, while more ventures are attested in the reigns of Shabaqa, Taharka, Psamtik I-II, Necho II, Amasis, Cambyses, Darius, Xerxes, Artaxerxes, and Nectanebo II (Meyer 1999: 870). Harrel and Brown (1999: 18-20) have surveyed a Late Period quarry and workmen’s huts at Rod el-Gamra in the Eastern Desert."
[1]
[1]: (Mumford 2010, 347) |
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|
"the residence-city of Piramesse cited in the Gebel elSilsilah stele no. 100 (C.I.2) should have been used by king Seshonq I for a certain period of time, being the passage in question a commemoration of local quarry work carried out or the king’s building project in Karnak."
[1]
[1]: (Pagliari 2012, 200) Pagliari, Giulia. 2012. Function and significance of ancient Egyptian royal palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite period: a lexicographical study and its possible connection with the archaeological evidence. Ph.D. thesis. University of Birmingham. |
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|
Mines.
[1]
[1]: (Philips and Philips 2010, 193) Philips, William D. and Carla Rahn Philips. 2010. A Concise History of Spain. Cambridge: CUP. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZT84ZFTP |
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|
The following seems to imply that mines were more common on other islands: ’Some of the more capable and ambitious students eventually came to recognize these advantages of a Japanese education for themselves. In addition, some of the more adventurous boys in the higher elementary school cherished the hope of getting to visit distant places by their school work. They hoped good studying might lead to their acceptance in the Carpentry School at Palau, or to a job as labor foreman in a mine or plantation on some far island.’
[1]
[1]: Fischer, John L. 1961. “Japanese Schools For The Natives Of Truk, Caroline Islands”, 86 |
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|
"France possesses no precious metal resources and little copper. Iron ores are abundant, and there are regional deposits of lead, zinc, and coal. All of these were exploited during the Middle Ages. Evidence for ironworking exists from Merovingian France onward."
[1]
[1]: (Hall in Kibler et al 1995, 1177) |
||||||
|
"France possesses no precious metal resources and little copper. Iron ores are abundant, and there are regional deposits of lead, zinc, and coal. All of these were exploited during the Middle Ages. Evidence for ironworking exists from Merovingian France onward."
[1]
[1]: (Hall in Kibler et al 1995, 1177) |
||||||
|
"France possesses no precious metal resources and little copper. Iron ores are abundant, and there are regional deposits of lead, zinc, and coal. All of these were exploited during the Middle Ages. Evidence for ironworking exists from Merovingian France onward."
[1]
[1]: (Hall in Kibler et al 1995, 1177) |
||||||
|
"France possesses no precious metal resources and little copper. Iron ores are abundant, and there are regional deposits of lead, zinc, and coal. All of these were exploited during the Middle Ages. Evidence for ironworking exists from Merovingian France onward."
[1]
[1]: (Hall in Kibler et al 1995, 1177) |
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|
See reference
[1]
[1]: (http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#) |
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|
See reference
[1]
[1]: (http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#) |
||||||
|
"France possesses no precious metal resources and little copper. Iron ores are abundant, and there are regional deposits of lead, zinc, and coal. All of these were exploited during the Middle Ages. Evidence for ironworking exists from Merovingian France onward."
[1]
[1]: (Hall in Kibler et al 1995, 1177) |
||||||
|
"France possesses no precious metal resources and little copper. Iron ores are abundant, and there are regional deposits of lead, zinc, and coal. All of these were exploited during the Middle Ages. Evidence for ironworking exists from Merovingian France onward."
[1]
[1]: (Hall in Kibler et al 1995, 1177) |
||||||
|
"France possesses no precious metal resources and little copper. Iron ores are abundant, and there are regional deposits of lead, zinc, and coal. All of these were exploited during the Middle Ages. Evidence for ironworking exists from Merovingian France onward."
[1]
[1]: (Hall in Kibler et al 1995, 1177) |
||||||
|
"France possesses no precious metal resources and little copper. Iron ores are abundant, and there are regional deposits of lead, zinc, and coal. All of these were exploited during the Middle Ages. Evidence for ironworking exists from Merovingian France onward."
[1]
[1]: (Hall in Kibler et al 1995, 1177) |
||||||
|
’Commoners, as well as chiefs, appear to have used slaves in producing kola nuts and in gold mining. They also used pawns for the same purposes. Indeed, referring admittedly to the last quarter of the century, Arhin’s informants in Kintampo described the acquisition of pawns as the quickest way to accumulate labour in order to expand one’s harvest of kola, which was in turn reinvested in slaves further to reinforce the labour force. In 1898 the importance of slaves in the kola industry was such that Richard Austin Freeman predicted that ‘On the abolition of domestic slavery the kola industry in Ashanti will tend to die out’. Regarding gold mining, Dumett has noted, for the Akan states generally, that the family labour unit included some slaves. Indeed, we may assume that any commoner wishing to increase output beyond the capacity of the conjugal family workforce needed to use slaves or pawns. As Garrard has demonstrated, the average returns on gold digging and panning were low, almost certainly too low to make it profitable to use wage labour.’
[1]
[1]: Austin, Gareth 1996. “‘No Elders Present’: Commoners And Private Ownership In Asante, 1807-96”, 18 |
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|
Our material on warfare (see below) suggests the use of metal tools, but weapons were ’home-made’ or taken in raids rather than commercially produced.
|
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|
Sandstone quarries dating back to the Early Bronze Age have been identified in the Ramon Crater in the Negev.
[1]
Copper mines in the Timna Valley date from possibly the Chalcolithic Age,
[2]
and operated under Egyptian control at least in the Late Bronze period.
[1]: (Milevski 2005:152). [2]: Genz (2000). |
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|
Precious metals do not seem to have been mined locally; over 95% of Hasmonean-minted bronze coins were made of metals believed to have originated in Cyprus.
[1]
However, as was true in previous eras, several stone quarries were in use. Among them was a Samara-stone quarry near Jericho, used for decorative architecture.
[2]
[1]: Epstein et al. (2010). [2]: Peleg-Barkat (2013). |
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|
About 20% of sites in this period are located near sources of iron ore, while smaller percentages are located near sources of gold, copper, lead, zinc, and silver
[1]
.
[1]: R. Brubaker, Aspects of mortuary variability in the South Indian Iron Age, in Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate & Research Institute 60-61, pp. 253-302 |
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|
"Kalidasa mentions mines frequently and refers to Vajra (diamond), Padamaraga (ruby), Pushparaga (topaz), Markata (emerald), Sphatika (crystals), Mani-sila, Suryakanta and Chanderkanta (moonglass) etc. The mines yielded gold, silver, copper, and Iron. All these metals were utilised for making ornaments, swords and arrows, spades, sickles, ploughshares, hammers etc."
[1]
[1]: (Khosla 1982, 64-65) Sarla Khosla. 1982. Gupta Civilization. New Delhi: Intellectual Press. |
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|
"Forests and mines of salt and metals were the state property" and their administration also was most probably in the charge of the revenue department.
[1]
[1]: (Majumdar and Altekar 1986, 278) Anant Sadashiv Altekar. The Administrative Organisation. Ramesh Chandra Majumdar. Anant Sadashiv Altekar. 1986. Vakataka - Gupta Age Circa 200-550 A.D. Motilal Banarsidass. Delhi. |
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|
Bronze objects ubiquitous. At Tell-el-Malyan: "It is unlikely, however, that the EDD building is in fact the temple built by Hutelutush-Inshushinak mentioned in the inscribed bricks from Tal-e Malyan. The content of the texts recovered is overwhelmingly metallurgical. Gold, silver, copper or bronze are mentioned, most frequently as raw metal and/or finished objects issued or transferred, although metal received is probably also implied as well (Stolper 1984: 13)."
[1]
[1]: (Potts 1999, 248) |
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|
At the time of the Achaemenids: "The stone used to make columns (Pl. 9.4) was quarried at an Elamite village called Abiradu (Elamite Hapiradush; Vallat 1993a: 78; for Achaemenid stone quarrying sites, see Huff 1994). The Elamite contribution of raw materials, in this case stone for the columns used in the palace, is echoed in two further texts."
[1]
[1]: (Potts 1999, 328) |
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|
Although Matthee caution that the Safavids "explored the potential of the existing [silver mines] ones only haphazardly and intermittently"
[1]
[1]: Matthee, Rudi. “Mint Consolidation and the Worsening of the Late Safavid Coinage: The Mint of Huwayza.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 44, no. 4 (January 1, 2001): 505-39. |
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|
Iceland’s resources were limited: ’Early Iceland had a limited range of material resources for manufacturing. Clays suitable for ceramic production are largely unavailable in Iceland. Woodworking and carpentry were essential to construction and the many household items were fashioned from driftwood. Bog iron was used for most metalworking and required charcoal production for smelting and working. Spinning and weaving from wool was a ubiquitous household industry. Leather was another important material in the production of clothing and household goods. Ale was locally produced, largely from imported grains and salt was made from burning kelp and seaweed.’
[1]
Many metal tools were imported rather than locally produced: ’The limited resources, especially in terms of raw materials for manufactured goods, made Iceland highly dependent on imported goods. Even before the decline and cessation of grain production in Iceland it is unlikely that Iceland ever produced enough cereals to meet its own needs. Of special significance in a feasting economy, grain and malt were essential to ale production. After Christianization imported wine also become essential for the celebration of communion. Many higher quality iron products, for example weapons and armor, could not be produced from local sources and were imported, mostly in finished forms. Other metals - brass, tin, lead, gold, silver, and bronze - were unavailable locally as well as steatite for utensils and stone suitable for making whetstones.’
[1]
[1]: Bolender, Douglas James and Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for Early Icelanders |
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|
"Like the early irrigation ditches in Italy, the gold and silver mines received considerable attention when they first started producing, but after the second century they are seldom mentioned."
[1]
"In the middle of the third century AD, Cyprian wrote that, ’the metals are nearly exhausted.’ Gold production in Spain peaked in the second century AD, ... but continued with reduced output for several centuries. Dacia (Romania and Hungary) was abandoned by the Romans in 271. We can be confident that the ores there were depleted."
[1]
[1]: (Morgan 2012) Morgan, James F. 2012. The Roman Empire. Fall of the West; Survival of the East. AuthorHouse. Bloomington. |
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|
‘Gold was an important Japanese export to China during the Kamakura era and much of the Muromachi era (via Ryukyu).During the second half of the sixteenth century, however, these gold mines were depleted and this metal was the first whose export was prohibited.
[1]
[1]: Kowner, Rotem. 2014. From White to Yellow: The Japanese in European Racial Thought, 1300-1735. Vol. 63. McGill-Queen’s Press-MQUP. |
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|
’Yoshiie had used his considerable resources as governor of Mutsu, which was the principal center of gold mining, to conduct the war and provision his troops. He was now obliged to compensate his retainers and recruits from his own resources.’
[1]
[1]: Shively, Donald H. and McCullough, William H. 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 2: Heian Japan. Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press.p.677 |
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|
Obsidian mines. "In contrast, large-sized mining sites in which underground obsidian nodules were dug out by means of numerous pits emerged in the Central Highlands during the Jomon Period. The systematic digging technology is characteristic of Jomon procurement activities. Although the earliest mining pit dates back to the late phase of the Incipient Jomon, the historical process with regard to the emergence of the digging technology for the mining is still ambiguous."
[1]
[1]: (Shimada 2012, 240) |
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|
Obsidian mines. "In contrast, large-sized mining sites in which underground obsidian nodules were dug out by means of numerous pits emerged in the Central Highlands during the Jomon Period. The systematic digging technology is characteristic of Jomon procurement activities. Although the earliest mining pit dates back to the late phase of the Incipient Jomon, the historical process with regard to the emergence of the digging technology for the mining is still ambiguous."
[1]
[1]: (Shimada 2012, 240) |
||||||
|
Obsidian mines. "In contrast, large-sized mining sites in which underground obsidian nodules were dug out by means of numerous pits emerged in the Central Highlands during the Jomon Period. The systematic digging technology is characteristic of Jomon procurement activities. Although the earliest mining pit dates back to the late phase of the Incipient Jomon, the historical process with regard to the emergence of the digging technology for the mining is still ambiguous."
[1]
[1]: (Shimada 2012, 240) |
||||||
|
Obsidian mines. "In contrast, large-sized mining sites in which underground obsidian nodules were dug out by means of numerous pits emerged in the Central Highlands during the Jomon Period. The systematic digging technology is characteristic of Jomon procurement activities. Although the earliest mining pit dates back to the late phase of the Incipient Jomon, the historical process with regard to the emergence of the digging technology for the mining is still ambiguous."
[1]
[1]: (Shimada 2012, 240) |
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|
’Angkor Wat was built without the use of mortar or the arch. Two types of sandstone were employed in the construction: medium-grained for the walls and finer-grained for the elaborately carved gallery walls. Both were quarried at Mount Kulen, 45 km (28 miles) to the northeast, and the blocks were probably rafted down the Siem Reap river and brought to the site by networks of canals.’
[1]
’Temple construction also required the quarrying and transporting of vast quantities of sandstone. Uchida and Shimoda (2013) have not only identified the individual quarries on the lower eastern slopes of the Kulen upland, but also through different degrees of magnetic susceptibility, linked individual quarries with different temples.’
[2]
The LiDAR archaeological survey by Evans (2016) and others provides an incredibly detailed illustration of the large-scale quarrying that was carried out near Phnom Kulen and elsewhere.
[3]
[1]: (Scarre 1999, p.83) [2]: (Higham 2014b, p. 398) [3]: (Evans 2016) |
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|
’While the dynastic sequence has been established on the basis of inscriptions and art history, it is archaeology that has illuminated crucial aspects of the state structure: the control of water, the infrastructure of roads, bridges, hospitals and quarries, and industrial production.’
[1]
The LiDAR archaeological survey by Evans (2016) and others provides an incredibly detailed illustration of the large-scale quarrying that was carried out near Phnom Kulen and elsewhere.
[2]
[1]: (Higham 2014b, p. 352) [2]: (Evans 2016) |
||||||
|
’Angkor Wat was built without the use of mortar or the arch. Two types of sandstone were employed in the construction: medium-grained for the walls and finer-grained for the elaborately carved gallery walls. Both were quarried at Mount Kulen, 45 km (28 miles) to the northeast, and the blocks were probably rafted down the Siem Reap river and brought to the site by networks of canals.’
[1]
’Temple construction also required the quarrying and transporting of vast quantities of sandstone. Uchida and Shimoda (2013) have not only identified the individual quarries on the lower eastern slopes of the Kulen upland, but also through different degrees of magnetic susceptibility, linked individual quarries with different temples.’ [2] [1]: (Scarre 1999, p.83) [2]: (Higham 2014b, p. 398) |
||||||
|
’Angkor Wat was built without the use of mortar or the arch. Two types of sandstone were employed in the construction: medium-grained for the walls and finer-grained for the elaborately carved gallery walls. Both were quarried at Mount Kulen, 45 km (28 miles) to the northeast, and the blocks were probably rafted down the Siem Reap river and brought to the site by networks of canals.’
[1]
’Temple construction also required the quarrying and transporting of vast quantities of sandstone. Uchida and Shimoda (2013) have not only identified the individual quarries on the lower eastern slopes of the Kulen upland, but also through different degrees of magnetic susceptibility, linked individual quarries with different temples.’ [2] [1]: (Scarre 1999, p.83) [2]: (Higham 2014b, p. 398) |
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|
From earliest times people of American bottom were visiting a number of sources. This is not mentioned in current literature. Two examples: Wyandot, in the Ohio river valley and Mill Creek just south of the American bottom.
|
||||||
|
Sources only describe residential sites.
[1]
[1]: Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York. |
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|
Iron mines: the first capital of united Chenla and Funan, Samor Preikuk, built by Içanavarman I (615-638) is located 55km south of the iron mines of Phnom Dek. Iron provided by local smiths was already used for the construction of temples. "La première capitale du Tchen-La et du Fou-Nan réunis, Sambor Preikuk, édifiée par Içanavarman 1er (615-638) est située à seulement 55 km au sud des mines de fer du Phnom Dek. Du fer fourni par les sidérurgistes locaux est déjà employé pour la construction des temples."
[1]
[1]: (Dupaigne 1992, 15) |
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|
’Instead of taxing people, land, or agricultural produce at a fixed rate, tribute from a subordinate ruler required delivery of spec- ified amounts of valuable local products, which might be gathered (such as aromatic woods and resins, rare wildlife, or spices), mined (gold, silver and other metals), grown (mainly rice), or manufactured (including weapons and luxury handicrafts). Some of these would be retained for use by the king and his court; others would be traded, often as a royal monopoly. All that was offered in return was status as a lord of the realm and protection against the depredations of neigh- bouring kingdoms.’
[1]
[1]: (Stuart-Fox 2003, p. 33) |
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|
’Instead of taxing people, land, or agricultural produce at a fixed rate, tribute from a subordinate ruler required delivery of specified amounts of valuable local products, which might be gathered (such as aromatic woods and resins, rare wildlife, or spices), mined (gold, silver and other metals), grown (mainly rice), or manufactured (including weapons and luxury handicrafts). Some of these would be retained for use by the king and his court; others would be traded, often as a royal monopoly. All that was offered in return was status as a lord of the realm and protection against the depredations of neigh- bouring kingdoms.’
[1]
[1]: (Stuart-Fox 2003, p. 33) |
||||||
|
"The tin mines of the Zeravshan River valley were found and investigated by N. Boroffka and H. Parzinger between 1997 and 1999. Two tin mines with Bronze Age workings were excavated. The largest was in the desert on the lower Zeravshan at Karnab (Uzbekistan), about 170km west of Sarazm, exploiting cassiterite ores with a moderate tin content ... The potter and radiocarbon dates show that the Karnab mine was worked by people from the northern steppes, connected with the Andronovo horizon ... Dates ranged from 1900 to 1300 BCE ..."
[1]
"Some communities specialized in copper mining, which was now carried out on an industrial scale, and it was Andronovo miners who began to exploit the tin ores of the Zeravshan range to enable them to produce standard tin bronze."
[2]
[1]: (Anthony 2010, 420) Anthony, David W. 2010. The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World. Princeton University Press. [2]: (Cunliffe 2015, 142) Cunliffe, Barry. 2015. By Steppe, Desert, and Ocean: The Birth of Eurasia. Oxford University Press. Oxford. |
||||||
|
iron mining
[1]
stone quarries, copper mines
[2]
Iron Age from 600 BCE in West Africa (e.g. Benue valley in Nigeria and upper Niger River) "the development and spread of the basic technologies of metal production and the forging and smithing of metal tools, notably in iron."
[3]
[1]: (Reader 1998, 22) [2]: (Posnansky 1981, 723, 719) [3]: (Davidson 1998, 8) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London. |
||||||
|
iron mining
[1]
stone quarries, copper mines
[2]
Iron Age from 600 BCE in West Africa (e.g. Benue valley in Nigeria and upper Niger River) "the development and spread of the basic technologies of metal production and the forging and smithing of metal tools, notably in iron."
[3]
[1]: (Reader 1998, 22) [2]: (Posnansky 1981, 723, 719) [3]: (Davidson 1998, 8) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London. |
||||||
|
iron mining
[1]
stone quarries, copper mines
[2]
Iron Age from 600 BCE in West Africa (e.g. Benue valley in Nigeria and upper Niger River) "the development and spread of the basic technologies of metal production and the forging and smithing of metal tools, notably in iron."
[3]
[1]: (Reader 1998, 22) [2]: (Posnansky 1981, 723, 719) [3]: (Davidson 1998, 8) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London. |
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|
"In 568 the Greek Zemarkhos, ambassador of Justin II to the Western Turks in Sogdiana, then under Turk rule, met a Turk who offered him iron for sale. The historian Menander, reporting this event, added his own commentary to the effect that it was in this way that the Turks wanted to make it known that they had iron mines. When the famous Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Hsüan-tsang called on one of the rulers of the Western Turks he noticed an iron bedstead in place of the usual wooden one. He found the object so unusual that he deemed it worthy of a mention in his travel account."
[1]
[1]: (Sinor 1990, 296) |
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|
"Because of their need of weaponry the Dzungar rulers opened iron, copper and silver mines and produced spears, shields, gunpowder, cannon, bullets and iron utensils."
[1]
"Copper, lead, and fine steel came from the ground. Rocks by the water’s edge produced gold and pearls: [there were so many that] they put them aside and did not use them. No one could surpass them in swift horses and numbers of barbarian riders.” (As this passage indicates, he seems to have learned the technology of Persian steel refining from his contacts with east Turkestan.)"
[2]
[1]: (Miyawaki et al 2003, 164) [2]: (Perdue 2005, 304) |
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|
stone quarries, copper mines
[1]
Iron Age from 600 BCE in West Africa (e.g. Benue valley in Nigeria and upper Niger River) "the development and spread of the basic technologies of metal production and the forging and smithing of metal tools, notably in iron."
[2]
[1]: (Posnansky 1981, 723, 719) [2]: (Davidson 1998, 8) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London. |
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|
Sources only describe residential sites.
[1]
[1]: Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York. |
||||||
|
With the exception of Suchilquitongo,
[1]
sources only describe residential sites.
[2]
[1]: Spencer, C. S. (1982) The Cuicatlán Cañada and Monte Albán: A study of primary state formation. Studies in Archaeology. Academic Press, New York. p246-7 [2]: Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York. |
||||||
|
Sources only describe residential sites.
[1]
[1]: Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York. |
||||||
|
Settlements were primarily residential.
[1]
[1]: Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York. |
||||||
|
Abundant stone and obsidian craft production indicates that raw materials were mined away from settlements.
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[1]: Stoner, Wesley D., Deborah L. Nichols, Bridget A. Alex, and Destiny L. Crider. (2015)"The emergence of Early-Middle Formative exchange patterns in Mesoamerica: A view from Altica in the Teotihuacan Valley." Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 39: 19-35. [2]: Tolstoy, Paul (1971). "Utilitarian Artifacts of Central Mexico." In The Handbook of Middle American Indians, vol. 10, ed. G. F. Ekholm, and I. Bernal. Austin: University of Texas Press, 270-296. [3]: Piña Chan, Román. (1971). "Preclassic or Formative Pottery and Minor Arts of the Valley of Mexico." In The Handbook of Middle American Indians, vol. 10, ed. G. F. Ekholm, and I. Bernal. Austin: University of Texas Press, pp.157-178. [4]: Charlton, Thomas H. (1984). "Production and Exchange: Variables in the Evolution of a Civilization." In Kenneth G. Hirth (Ed.) Trade and Exchange in Early Mesoamerica. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, pp.17-42. [5]: Biskowski, Martin. (2008) "Maize-Grinding Tools in Prehispanic Central Mexico." In New Approaches to Old Stones: Recent Studies of Ground Stone Artifacts, edited by Yorke M. Rowan and Jennie R. Ebeling. London: Equinox Publishing, pp. 144-155. [6]: Tolstoy, Paul, Suzanne K. Fish, Martin W. Boksenbaum, Kathryn Blair Vaughn and C. Earle Smith. (1977). "Early Sedentary Communities of the Basin of Mexico." Journal of Field Archaeology, 4(1): 91-106. |
||||||
|
In addition to a Terminal Formative quarry located in the Teo Valley (TE-TF-264),
[1]
abundant stone and obsidian craft production indicates that raw materials were mined away from settlements.
[2]
[3]
[4]
[1]: Sanders, William T., Michael West, Charles Fletcher, and Joseph Marino. (1975). The Teotihuacan Valley Project Final Report, Volume 2: The Formative Period Occupation of the Valley, Part 1 -- Texts and Tables. The Pennsylvania State University Department of Anthropology, Occasional Papers in Anthropology. [2]: Piña Chan, Román. (1971). "Preclassic or Formative Pottery and Minor Arts of the Valley of Mexico." In The Handbook of Middle American Indians, vol. 10, ed. G. F. Ekholm, and I. Bernal. Austin: University of Texas Press, pp.157-178. [3]: Charlton, Thomas H. (1984). "Production and Exchange: Variables in the Evolution of a Civilization." In Kenneth G. Hirth (Ed.) Trade and Exchange in Early Mesoamerica. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, pp.17-42. [4]: Biskowski, Martin. (2008) "Maize-Grinding Tools in Prehispanic Central Mexico." In New Approaches to Old Stones: Recent Studies of Ground Stone Artifacts, edited by Yorke M. Rowan and Jennie R. Ebeling. London: Equinox Publishing, pp. 144-155. |
||||||
|
Abundant stone and obsidian craft production indicates that raw materials were mined away from settlements.
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[1]: Stoner, Wesley D., Deborah L. Nichols, Bridget A. Alex, and Destiny L. Crider. (2015)"The emergence of Early-Middle Formative exchange patterns in Mesoamerica: A view from Altica in the Teotihuacan Valley." Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 39: 19-35. [2]: Tolstoy, Paul (1971). "Utilitarian Artifacts of Central Mexico." In The Handbook of Middle American Indians, vol. 10, ed. G. F. Ekholm, and I. Bernal. Austin: University of Texas Press, 270-296. [3]: Piña Chan, Román. (1971). "Preclassic or Formative Pottery and Minor Arts of the Valley of Mexico." In The Handbook of Middle American Indians, vol. 10, ed. G. F. Ekholm, and I. Bernal. Austin: University of Texas Press, pp.157-178. [4]: Charlton, Thomas H. (1984). "Production and Exchange: Variables in the Evolution of a Civilization." In Kenneth G. Hirth (Ed.) Trade and Exchange in Early Mesoamerica. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, pp.17-42. [5]: Biskowski, Martin. (2008) "Maize-Grinding Tools in Prehispanic Central Mexico." In New Approaches to Old Stones: Recent Studies of Ground Stone Artifacts, edited by Yorke M. Rowan and Jennie R. Ebeling. London: Equinox Publishing, pp. 144-155. [6]: Tolstoy, Paul, Suzanne K. Fish, Martin W. Boksenbaum, Kathryn Blair Vaughn and C. Earle Smith. (1977). "Early Sedentary Communities of the Basin of Mexico." Journal of Field Archaeology, 4(1): 91-106. |
||||||
|
In addition to a Terminal Formative quarry located in the Teo Valley (TE-TF-264),
[1]
abundant stone and obsidian craft production indicates that raw materials were mined away from settlements.
[2]
[3]
[4]
[1]: Sanders, William T., Michael West, Charles Fletcher, and Joseph Marino. (1975). The Teotihuacan Valley Project Final Report, Volume 2: The Formative Period Occupation of the Valley, Part 1 -- Texts and Tables. The Pennsylvania State University Department of Anthropology, Occasional Papers in Anthropology. [2]: Piña Chan, Román. (1971). "Preclassic or Formative Pottery and Minor Arts of the Valley of Mexico." In The Handbook of Middle American Indians, vol. 10, ed. G. F. Ekholm, and I. Bernal. Austin: University of Texas Press, pp.157-178. [3]: Charlton, Thomas H. (1984). "Production and Exchange: Variables in the Evolution of a Civilization." In Kenneth G. Hirth (Ed.) Trade and Exchange in Early Mesoamerica. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, pp.17-42. [4]: Biskowski, Martin. (2008) "Maize-Grinding Tools in Prehispanic Central Mexico." In New Approaches to Old Stones: Recent Studies of Ground Stone Artifacts, edited by Yorke M. Rowan and Jennie R. Ebeling. London: Equinox Publishing, pp. 144-155. |
||||||
|
From earliest times people of American bottom were visiting a number of sources. This is not mentioned in current literature. Two examples: Wyandot, in the Ohio river valley and Mill Creek just south of the American bottom.
|
||||||
|
Sources only describe residential sites.
[1]
[1]: Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York. |
||||||
|
Sources only describe residential sites.
[1]
[1]: Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York. |
||||||
|
"For more than a thousand years, the peoples of the Cuzco region had obtained their obsidian from sources located in the Alca region. During the Wari Period, when Wari occupied parts of the Cuzco region, the obsidian flow from this source stopped."
[1]
This suggests that the Cuzco people did not have their own obsidian quarries.
[1]: (Bauer 2004, 68) |
||||||
|
"For more than a thousand years, the peoples of the Cuzco region had obtained their obsidian from sources located in the Alca region. During the Wari Period, when Wari occupied parts of the Cuzco region, the obsidian flow from this source stopped."
[1]
This suggests that the Cuzco people did not have their own obsidian quarries.
[1]: (Bauer 2004, 68) |
||||||
|
According to Alan Covey: "See Dennis Ogburn and Ian Farrington’s work. There are local diorite and limestone quarries near Cuzco, as well as the Huaccoto andesite quarry. Keep in mind that we still don’t know a lot about pre-imperial architecture in Cuzco."
[1]
[1]: (Alan Covey 2015, personal communication) |
||||||
|
"For more than a thousand years, the peoples of the Cuzco region had obtained their obsidian from sources located in the Alca region. During the Wari Period, when Wari occupied parts of the Cuzco region, the obsidian flow from this source stopped."
[1]
This suggests that the Cuzco people did not have their own obsidian quarries.
[1]: (Bauer 2004, 68) |
||||||
|
"The Incas’ mines were distributed throughout their domain; copper deposits are distributed in bands along the length of the Andes, but gold and silver occur in more restricted deposits. Tin, which was used widely in the empire to make bronze, was concentrated in southern Bolivia and northern Chile."
[1]
[1]: (D’Altroy 2014, 440) |
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|
"Wari may have controlled a number of major sources of important raw materials, including Quispisisa, the largest obsidian (volcanic glass) quarry in the Andes. Obsidian was one of the best materials available for making sharp knives and points for spears and arrows. In the Middle Horizon, the distribution of this distinctive type of obsidian was suddenly restricted to sites with Wari associations. The sources of other minerals, precious metals, and some imported shells may also have been under Wari’s exclusive control. For example, Wari sites contain bronze artifacts made of an alloy of copper and arsenic, derived from smelting an ore called enargite.30 There are a number of enargite sources in Wari territory, and Wari may have controlled one or more of them."
[1]
[1]: (Schreiber in Bergh 2012, 42) |
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|
The colonial authorities organized mining operations with a focus on precious metals: ’In response to Australian pressure, the British government annexed Papua in 1888. Gold was discovered shortly thereafter, resulting in a major movement of prospectors and miners to what was then the Northern District. Relations with the Papuans were bad from the start, and there were numerous killings on both sides. The Protectorate of British New Guinea became Australian territory by the passing of the Papua Act of 1905 by the Commonwealth Government of Australia. The new administration adopted a policy of peaceful penetration, and many measures of social and economic national development were introduced. Local control was in the hands of village constables, paid servants of the Crown. Chosen by European officers, they were intermediaries between the government and the people. In 1951 an eruption occurred on Mount Lamington, completely devastating a large part of the area occupied by the Orokaiva.’
[1]
Orokaiva men were recruited for labour in the mines: ’None of the cash crop or natural resource industries developed in the Division had fulfilled expectations. Nevertheless, the mining industry had survived, the number of plantations continued to grow and the resident European population increased. All of these factors influenced the working habits of the Orokaivans, in spite of the fact that they still controlled the bulk of their village land. A considerable number of Orokaivan men went to work on plantations, in mines and in European houses. In 1924 a Resident Magistrate commented that a large number of the male population had already worked on plantations or in stores, or had been members of the police force (see Table 2.4 and Flint 1926:44).’
[2]
[1]: Latham, Christopher S.: eHRAf Cultural Summary for the Orokaiva [2]: Newton, Janice 1985. “Orokaiva Production And Change”, 38 |
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|
Clay for ceramics would have been extracted from quarries.
|
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|
"The great majority of the Harappan population must have been primary producers: farmers, pastoralists, fishers, or hunter-gatherers. Many, however, probably also engaged in other occupations during the periods in the year when there was time to spare from subsistence activities. [...] In addition hunter-gatherers, and perhaps pastoralists, could include in their seasonal round visits to places where other resources could be obtained, so they may have been largely responsible for mining gemstones and for quarrying flint in the Rohri Hills."
[1]
Shortugai for lapis-lazuli.
[1]: (McIntosh 2008, 255) Jane McIntosh. 2008. The Ancient Indus Valley. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO. |
||||||
|
"Large chert cores were roughed out at quarries, not at valley sites."
[1]
From earliest times people of American bottom were visiting a number of sources. This is not mentioned in current literature. Two examples: Wyandot, in the Ohio river valley and Mill Creek just south of the American bottom.
[1]: (Milner 2006, 82) |
||||||
|
"The great majority of the Harappan population must have been primary producers: farmers, pastoralists, fishers, or hunter-gatherers. Many, however, probably also engaged in other occupations during the periods in the year when there was time to spare from subsistence activities. [...] In addition hunter-gatherers, and perhaps pastoralists, could include in their seasonal round visits to places where other resources could be obtained, so they may have been largely responsible for mining gemstones and for quarrying flint in the Rohri Hills."
[1]
Shortugai for lapis-lazuli.
[1]: (McIntosh 2008, 255) Jane McIntosh. 2008. The Ancient Indus Valley. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO. |
||||||
|
During the Russian period, mining companies entered Sakha territory and traded with the natives: ’The tribe as a whole, while engaged in horse and cattle breeding as their chief occupation, began to increase the number of their horned cattle at the expense of their number of horses. Of cow’s milk they could make, for use during the long winter, butter, a kind of cheese, and some other milk products which cannot, as we shall see later, be made from mare’s milk. The Russian gold-mining companies on the rivers Olekma and Vitim proved profitable buyers of these cattle, and this gave an impetus to the raising of them. Finally, the cultivation of cereal plants, borrowed from the Russians in the southern parts of the Yakut Province, where the climate allows of it, has made such progress in the last twenty years, that at present agriculture is the chief occupation, and bread the staple food, of many Yakut families of the District of Yakutsk, and particularly of that of Olekminsk. Nowadays large droves of horses, and [Page 260] mares for milking, can be found only in those districts far removed from the centres of influence of Russian culture, and they belong to a few very rich families.’
[1]
It is unclear from this description whether the Sakha were employed in the mining industries, or whether their connection to miners was confined to trade. We have assumed the latter, but this is open to re-evaluation.
[1]: Jochelson, Waldemar 1906. “Kumiss Festivals Of The Yakut And The Decoration Of Kumiss Vessels”, 259p |
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|
"The town played a regional role over a long period and on a very large scale in the working of metals, particularly tin and copper, and the associated development of handicrafts to produce tools, ceramics, and jewellery."
[1]
[1]: http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1141 |
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|
Gold for currency mined in Upper Egypt.
[1]
Access to gold mines in Upper Egypt and Nubia.
[2]
[1]: (Calvert 2005, 741-742) Shillington, K. ed. 2005. Encyclopedia of African History: A - G.. 1. Taylor & Francis. [2]: (Sanders 1998, 162) Sanders, Paula A. The Fatimid state, 969-1171. Petry, Carl F. ed. 1998. The Cambridge History of Egypt. Volume One. Islamic Egypt, 640-1517. Cambridge University Press. |
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|
stone building activities (e.g. viaduct) required stone
|
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|
Lydia had a significant amount of electrum, an alloy of gold and silver, that existed in the alluvial deposits of the rivers around Sardis. There was an extensive associated processing industry that purified the gold and silver. // Lydia was one of a number of small kingdoms in Anatolia. It was well positioned in the riverlands of western Anatolia and had a rich supply of electrum, the natural alloy of silver and gold.
[1]
[1]: Roosevelt, C.H. 2012. Iron Age Western Anatolia. In Potts, D.T. (ed.) A Companion to the Archaeology of the Near East. London: Blackwell. p. 897-913 |
||||||
|
"Large chert cores were roughed out at quarries, not at valley sites."
[1]
From earliest times people of American bottom were visiting a number of sources. This is not mentioned in current literature. Two examples: Wyandot, in the Ohio river valley and Mill Creek just south of the American bottom.
[1]: (Milner 2006, 82) |
||||||
|
"Whereas several mines of gold and silver are known to have been exploited in Yemen during the course of the third/ninth and fourth/tenth centuries, sources of Ziyadid gold remain mostly unknown."
[1]
[1]: (Peli 2008: 258) Peli, A. 2008. A history of the Ziyadids through their coinage (203—442/818—1050). Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies , 2008, Vol. 38, Papers from the forty-first meeting of the Seminar for Arabian Studies held in London, 19-21 July 2007 (2008), pp. 251-263. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ADM7C94B/library |
||||||
|
From earliest times people of American bottom were visiting a number of sources. This is not mentioned in current literature. Two examples: Wyandot, in the Ohio river valley and Mill Creek just south of the American bottom.
|
||||||
|
"Large chert cores were roughed out at quarries, not at valley sites."
[1]
From earliest times people of American bottom were visiting a number of sources. This is not mentioned in current literature. Two examples: Wyandot, in the Ohio river valley and Mill Creek just south of the American bottom.
[1]: (Milner 2006, 82) |
||||||
|
"Large chert cores were roughed out at quarries, not at valley sites."
[1]
From earliest times people of American bottom were visiting a number of sources. This is not mentioned in current literature. Two examples: Wyandot, in the Ohio river valley and Mill Creek just south of the American bottom.
[1]: (Milner 2006, 82) |
||||||
|
Mill Creek waning after 1300 CE. "It would be an extraordinary coincidence if these developments were unrelated in some manner to the disappearance of the Cambria, Silvernale, and Mill Creek complexes in the region by A.D. 1300, and, more broadly, to the major cultural transitions that were occurring from the Plains to the Atlantic seaboard in the northeastern United States during the A.D. 1200-1300 period."
[1]
"There were still quarries being used; indeed Blood Run has a lot of material from the Pipestone National Monument in Minnesota as I recall, so that was certainly a “mine” of sorts."
[2]
[1]: (Schlesier 1994, 138) [2]: (Peregrine 2016, personal communication) |
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|
“Archaeological studies and written sources indicate that the population was engaged in various occupations - in mining and smelting copper and iron, mining precious stones, manufacturing tools, arms and pottery, and in weaving and building activities. Internal trade and commerce flourished among the population of the oases and steppes in Chorasmia, Ferghana and Usrushana. […]Gold, copper, silver and iron were mined in the Kyzyl Kum, the Nuratau mountains, the Naukat deposit in the Ferghana valley, the Khojand hills, the Kurama (Kara-Mazar mountains) and Chatkal ranges, the Ahangaran valley, the Almalyk district and the Karatau mountains. Many places where metals were smelted have been identified, complete with fragments of slag, in settlements in the Kayrak Rums. These probably drew their raw materials from deposits at Naukat, Uchkatli Miskon, Dzhidargamirsay, Chakadambulak, Aktashkan, Kochbulak and Koni Mansur in the Kara-Mazar."
[1]
"The source of ore was the Bukan-tau and Tamdy-tau mountains, where ancient workings and copper-smelteries were discovered (Itina 1977: 136, 137)."
[2]
[1]: (Negmatov 1994, 445) [2]: (Kuzima 2007, 238) Kuzmina, Elena Efimovna. 2007. The Origin of the Indo-Iranians. BRILL. |
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|
" In Badakhshan, Darvaz, Rushan and Shughnan, rubies, lapis lazuli and silver were mined; in Tukharistan, lead, sulphur and other metals and minerals; in the upper Zarafshan valley, iron, gold, silver and vitriol; in Usrushana, large quantities of iron; and in Asbara (Isfara), coal was reportedly to be found. Many minerals were mined in Ferghana: iron, tin, silver, mercury, copper, lead, tar, asbestos, turquoise, sal ammoniac and, apparently, petroleum oil. Ilaq (the Ahangaran valley) was known as a major centre for the processing of silver and lead ore. In Ilaq, and in the Kashka Darya basin, salt was mined. Minerals were processed in Khurasan: turquoise (in the district of Rivand, near Nishapur), marble (in the district of Bayhaq), fine stone for craft working (in the Tus region), gold and iron (in Gharchistan), iron (in the Nishapur district), copper (in the Merv district), vitriol, sulphur, lead, arsenic (in the Balkh district), jet, clay for pottery, and so on. The mountains of Jurjan produced gold, silver, iron, copper and various kinds of vitriol; silver came from Parwan and Panjshir, and marble from Bayhaq."
[1]
[1]: (Negmatov 1997, 89) Negmatov, N N. in Asimov, M S and Bosworth, C E eds. 1997. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part I. UNESCO. |
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|
This is based on the codes for the Rasulids as ’Sultan ’Amir also appears to have been emulating the high period of Rasulid power a hundred years earlier’
[1]
.
[1]: Porter, Venetia Ann (1992) The history and monuments of the Tahirid dynasty of the Yemen 858-923/1454-1517, Durham theses, Durham University, p. 4 Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/5867/ |
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|
Stone quarries. Used to gather material for the construction of the ‘enclosures’ for which the site is best-known. “…the available evidence shows that the builders of Great Zimbabwe extracted granite from quarries scattered in various localities around the site….”
[1]
[1]: (Chirikure 2021, 119) Shadreck Chirikure, Great Zimbabwe: Reclaiming a ‘Confiscated’ Past (Routledge, 2021). Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MWWKAGSJ/collection |
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|
Confirmed by Machiridza in an excerpt from Portuguese primary sources which clearly states the present of mines within the area of Torwa. “In 1552 Joao de Barros wrote: ‘They have other mines in a region named Toroa [sic], also called the Kingdom of Butua, ruled by a prince [chief] named Burrom, a vassal of Benomotapa….’ This source implies Torwa was synonymous with Butua.”
[1]
.
[1]: (Machiridza 2012, 88) Lesley Machiridza, Material Culture and Dialectics of Identity and Power: Towards a Historical Archaeology of the Rozvi in South-Western Zimbabwe, MA Archaeology Dissertation, University of Pretoria 2012. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/RT3ZFDBC/item-list |
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|
Goldmining specifically noted, but without further elaboration, in Schoeman. Copper mines specifically mentioned as a 15th century conquest by Pikirayi. Chanaiwa suggests these mines may have been controlled by the king personally. “The economy in the Mutapa region appears to have been… similar to that of Great Zimbabwe, with cattle, agriculture, gold and trade continuing being key components…. [trade] enabled chiefs to mobilize labour successfully in order to perform a range of activities in the Mutapa area. This included gold mining.”
[1]
“The Mutapa himself also owned a number of royal mines, which were worked by indigenous labourers….”
[2]
[1]: (Schoeman 2017) Maria Schoeman, “Political Complexity North and South of the Zambezi River,” in Oxford Research Encyclopedias Online (2017). Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/4UBRHU5H/item-details [2]: (Chanaiwa 1972, 430) David Chanaiwa, “Politics and Long-Distance Trade in the Mwene Mutapa Empire During the Sixteenth Century,” in The International Journal of African Studies Vol. 5, No. 3 (1972): 424-435. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T5BNKGK6/item-details |
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|
Dutch-managed gold mines in western Sumatra. "Besides pepper, the west coast gained in importance from 1670 to 1737 due to the gold mining in Sillida, where Saxon and Bohemian engineers working for the VOC themselves managed the gold mines and where the harsh conditions resulted in a high loss of life among the miners. Initially many of these workers were Europeans, but during the eighteenth century they were mainly slaves from Madagascar."
[1]
[1]: (Emmer and Gommans 2020: 283) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/AI9PPN7Q/collection. |
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|
“By the late fifteenth century, such Central Sudan towns as Katsina, Kano, and Birnin Gazargamu had become the centres of an expanding regional economy, whose most important sectors were the production of grain and other foodstuffs, livestock breeding, the mining of numerous salts, iron, tin, and other minerals, and the manufacture of textiles, leather goods, iron ware, and other commodities.”
[1]
[1]: Lovejoy, P. E. (1974). Interregional Monetary Flows in the Precolonial Trade of Nigeria. The Journal of African History, 15(4), 563–585: 565. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/58ASG655/collection |
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|
Gold mines. “With the end of the export slave trade, the commercial populations looked for new commodities to trade […]These linkages also seem to have stimulated the cultivation of cotton, the mining of gold, and the production of textiles and gold jewelry.”
[1]
[1]: (Klien, 2005) Klien, Martin A. ‘Futa Toro: Early Nineteenth Century’ In Encyclopedia of African History Volume 1: A-G. Edited by Kevin Shillington. London: Taylor and Francis. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/U5AI43KW/collection |
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|
Not certain whether mines/quarries were within the boundaries of the Nri Kingdom, but seems to be implied. “The officers of Eze Nri also used their wealth and status as ritual specialists to recruit and maintain numerous miners, craftsmen, and artists among others.”
[1]
“The Igbo-Ukwu excavations suggested that the institution of sacred kingship, which still flourishes at Nr and among the riverain and western Igbo, was much older than could have been deduced from oral tradition alone. The finds yielded evidence of a hitherto unsuspected involvement in international trade, hundreds of miles from the southern termini of the Saharan routes: there was a great treasury of beads, some of glass and some of carnelian, many of which seem to have originated in Venice and India. Much research has been devoted to the raw materials used in the sculptures: tin bronze and leaded tin bronze, which may have been obtained in ancient mines in Abakaliki in eastern Igboland.”
[2]
[1]: Ogundiran, A. (2005). Four Millennia of Cultural History in Nigeria (ca. 2000 B.C.—A.D. 1900): Archaeological Perspectives. Journal of World Prehistory, 19(2), 133–168: 148. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/PK7F26DP/collection [2]: Isichei, Elizabeth. A History of African Societies to 1870. Cambridge University Press, 1997: 247. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Z4GK27CI/collection |
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The following suggests that the only type of site that has been identified are homesteads. “For the first 400 years of the settlement’s history, Kirikongo was a single economically generalized social group (Figure 6). The occupants were self-sufficient farmers who cultivated grains and herded livestock, smelted and forged iron, opportunistically hunted, lived in puddled earthen structures with pounded clay floors, and fished in the seasonal drainages. [...] Since Kirikongo did not grow (at least not significantly) for over 400 years, it is likely that extra-community fissioning continually occurred to contribute to regional population growth, and it is also likely that Kirikongo itself was the result of budding from a previous homestead. However, with the small scale of settlement, the inhabitants of individual homesteads must have interacted with a wider community for social and demographic reasons. [...] It may be that generalized single-kin homesteads like Kirikongo were the societal model for a post-LSA expansion of farming peoples along the Nakambe (White Volta) and Mouhoun (Black Volta) River basins. A homestead settlement pattern would fit well with the transitional nature of early sedentary life, where societies are shifting from generalized reciprocity to more restricted and formalized group membership, and single-kin communities like Kirikongo’s house (Mound 4) would be roughly the size of a band.”
[1]
[1]: (Dueppen 2012: 27, 32) |
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"Contexts that could shed light on the dynamics of social structure and hierarchies in the metropolis, such as the royal burial site of Oyo monarchs and the residences of the elite population, have not been investigated. The mapping of the palace structures has not been followed by systematic excavations (Soper, 1992); and questions of the economy, military system, and ideology of the empire have not been addressed archaeologically, although their general patterns are known from historical studies (e.g, Johnson, 1921; Law, 1977)."
[1]
Regarding this period, however, one of the historical studies mentioned in this quote also notes: "Of the earliestperiod of Oyo history, before the sixteenth century, very little is known."
[2]
Law does not then go on to provide specific information directly relevant to this variable.
[1]: (Ogundiran 2005: 151-152) [2]: (Law 1977: 33) |
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“Moreover, the end of Spanish rule also brought some unexpected costs for the mining sector. Not only were the direct effects of the independence wars on mining production highly disruptive, they also involved the loss of low-cost and guaranteed supplies of mercury (essential for processing low-grade ores) that Spain had provided from its large state-owned mine at Almaden. As a result of this disruption, and the other mentioned factors, silver production fell to less than one-fifth of previous levels from 1812 to 1822. According to some estimates, it did not recover its preindependence level until the 1870s, despite a plethora of tax incentives, the opening of the sector to foreign participation, and the availability of new technological developments.”
[1]
“In the 1820s, the government managed to temporarily attract some major new foreign investors to Mexico’s mining sector. However, after a few decades of operation, they left the country, having failed to meet their expectations of a highly profitable business… In any case, by 1850 no foreign capital remained in the industry, having been replaced by a new wave of local investors. These investors were pivotal to the mining industry’s slow but persistent recovery that took place in the second half of the 19th century, helped by the discovery of new deposits, improvements in infrastructure—the railway system in particular—and the political and social stability of the Porfiriato.”
[2]
[1]: (Moreno-Brid and Ros 2009: 31) Moreno-Brid, Juan Carlos and Ros, Jaime. 2009. Development and Growth in the Mexican Economy: A Historical Perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PZXKGTTV [2]: (Moreno-Brid and Ros 2009: 37) Moreno-Brid, Juan Carlos and Ros, Jaime. 2009. Development and Growth in the Mexican Economy: A Historical Perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PZXKGTTV |
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“Mining of and trade in precious and other metals played an important role in the economics of the Bohemian crown lands. While gold lodes and alluvial deposits of gold did not return especially large profits, the Bohemian lands became one of the greatest powers in the mining of silver… Since the profit from the mining of precious metals and minting of coins was one of the ruler’s rights, the coffers of the Luxemburgs were enriched, enabling them to finance their policies, both at home and abroad, as well as undertake new construction work and cultural enterprises. Although the value of the Czech groschen fell with the lower silver content throughout the 14th century (gradually half of what it originally was), this specie remained in demand in all neighbouring countries as late as the Hussite period. On the reverse of the Czech groschen a number of German towns impressed their mark as evidence of its high quality. However, the affluence of the Czech state was increased by the mining of other metals, and pewter, copper and lead – partly the by-products of silver mining – were exported to the German lands.”
[1]
[1]: (Pánek and Oldřich 2009: 144-146) Pánek, Jaroslav and Oldřich, Tůma. 2009. A History of the Czech Lands. University of Chicago Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4NAX9KBJ |
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“The main Tiwanaku archaeological site is located in the high Altiplano area south of Lake Titicaca in Bolivia. The site contains many stone structures, earthen mounds, stairways, plazas, and reservoirs. Building stones at the site, weighing up to 100 tons, were brought from a quarry three miles away. The site’s renowned Gateway of the Sun was cut from a 10-foot-high stone and was carved with representations of humans, the condor, and the sun god.”
[1]
“Further, for the first time in centuries, the saddle just below Wila Kollu, the focus of Bermann’s excavations, no longer was a major locus of dense residential occupation and activity. Inhabited by several clustered patio groups in Late Tiwanaku IV, the same area now comprised two burial clusters (Bermann 1994:220–223). About half of the burials were collared or capped with carved andesite blocks, precisely the kinds of blocks that would have fitted between larger blocks and pilasters of the nearby platform and sunken court. The use of blocks in local burial contexts indicates that at least some of the edifices were being dismantled and quarried by local residents (Bermann 1994:223).”
[2]
[1]: (Middleton 2015: 948) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Volume 1-3, A-Z. London: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7N3PNVCB [2]: (Janusek 2004: 228) Janusek, John Wayne. 2004. Identity and Power in the Ancient Andes: Tiwanaku Cities Through Time. New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SDDCMA8P |
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“The stone available in Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, worked well for masons, and perhaps it was for this reason that the Chaco Phenomenon arose where it did. The stone splits easily into tabular slabs, which are perfect for the walls of multistory buildings. Masonry techniques and materials evolved over time as Chacoan builders perfected their craft and came to depend less on thick mud mortar. Figure 10.7 shows a simplified succession of improving bonds over time. Chacoan communities controlled regional turquoise trade by the ninth century. Chaco Canyon became a distribution hub for a system that imported turquoise from distant quarries and at least some of it was exported in exchange for a variety of goods.”
[1]
[1]: (Snow et al 2020: 191) Snow, Dean R., Gonlin, Nancy, and Siegel, Peter E. 2020. The Archaeology of Native North America, 2nd ed. London; New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5T4C9IQT |
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Tin; coal; stone. “The same aristocrats who expanded or improved their holdings through enclosure and use of new fodder crops also exploited their mineral rights, becoming proprietors of mines and quarries.”
[1]
“Other areas saw regional industries pick up the slack: tin mining in Cornwall, lead in Derbyshire and Somerset, and coal around Newcastle and in Nottinghamshire and North Wales; ironmaking in Kent and Sussex; steelworking in and about Sheffield; pottery in Staffordshire; and shipbuilding along the Thames estuary. Coal shipments from the northeast to London alone rose from 50,000 tons in the 1580s to 300,000 tons in the 1640s.”
[2]
“Iron and the raw materials necessary to make it, such as tin and coal, also abounded in England in 1485. But they were too expensive to mine and too difficult to fashion at the start of our period to create more than isolated pockets of local economic significance.”
[3]
[1]: (Bucholz et al 2013: 360) Bucholz, Robert, Newton Key, and R.O. Bucholz. 2013. Early Modern England 1485-1714: A Narrative History. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uvic/detail.action?docID=1166775. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XQGJH96U [2]: (Bucholz et al 2013: 202) Bucholz, Robert, Newton Key, and R.O. Bucholz. 2013. Early Modern England 1485-1714: A Narrative History. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uvic/detail.action?docID=1166775. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XQGJH96U [3]: (Bucholz et al 2013: 14) Bucholz, Robert, Newton Key, and R.O. Bucholz. 2013. Early Modern England 1485-1714: A Narrative History. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uvic/detail.action?docID=1166775. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XQGJH96U |
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“One reason Tyrol was so valuable to the house was that the ruler’s regalian rights over the mines supplied a substantial income with no need to get the estates’ consent. The actual income from those mines was still never enough to pay all of Maximilian’s expenses. Though his revenues compared favorably with those of the French and Castilian monarchs, he was always short of funds. The mines, therefore, became even more valuable as collateral for loans. Maximilian began the dynasty’s long relationship with the Fugger family of bankers, who attached themselves to the Habsburgs like a parasite to a host. Maximilian essentially gave the Fuggers control over Tyrol’s copper and silver mines. Of revenues from those mines, 50 percent would go to the Fuggers, 18 percent to Maximilian, and 32 percent to the mining contractor.”
[1]
[1]: (Curtis 2013: 71) Curtis, Benjamin. 2013. The Habsburgs: The History of a Dynasty. London; New York: Bloomsbury. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TRKUBP92 |
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Mines and quarries were present across the empire. Silver in particular was one of the greatest sources of wealth in Europe until gold was mined in South America.
[1]
[2]
[1]: (Fichtner 2003: 8, 18) Fichtner, Paula Sutter. 2003. The Habsburg Monarchy, 1490-1848: Attributes of Empire. Macmillan International Higher Education. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QQ77TV4K [2]: (Curtis 2013: 101) Curtis, Benjamin. 2013. The Habsburgs: The History of a Dynasty. London; New York: Bloomsbury. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TRKUBP92 |
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Tin and coal mines in the UK. Precious metals and jewels in the Americas and Africa.
[1]
[1]: (Colquhoun 1811: 130) Colquhoun, Patrik. 1814. Treatise on the Wealth, Power and Resources of the British Empire in Every Quarter of the World Etc. Jos. Mawman. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3SNZA6FJ |
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Anglo-Saxon homes were made of wood rather than stone or brick so it is unlikely that mines and quarries were needed for mass-production until the later period and the Norman invasion when stone and brick became more popular.
[1]
[1]: (Hills 1990: 51) Hills, Catherine. ‘Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England’, History Today, 1 October 1990, https://www.proquest.com/docview/1299029206/abstract/974AE2C925154DEBPQ/1. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9P2MJSYJ |
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Anglo-Saxon homes were made of wood rather than stone or brick so it is unlikely that mines and quarries were needed for mass-production.
[1]
[1]: )Hills 1990: 51) Hills, Catherine. ‘Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England’, History Today, 1 October 1990, https://www.proquest.com/docview/1299029206/abstract/974AE2C925154DEBPQ/1. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9P2MJSYJ/ |
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Tin and coal mines in the UK. Precious metals and jewels in the Americas and Africa.
[1]
Gold mines in Australia, Canada and America, and diamond quarries in South Africa.
[2]
[1]: (Colquhoun 1811: 130) Colquhoun, Patrik. 1814. Treatise on the Wealth, Power and Resources of the British Empire in Every Quarter of the World Etc. Jos. Mawman. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3SNZA6FJ [2]: (Porter 1999: 263) Porter, Andrew, ed. 1999. The Oxford History of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Century, vol. 3, 5 vols. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GTF9V4CG |
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Nerchinsk Mining District (Siberia): One of the oldest mining areas, established in the late 17th century, located in Eastern Siberia. It was renowned for silver and lead mining and played a crucial role in the economic development of the region.
[1]
[1]: Igor Linkov and Richard Wilson, eds., Air Pollution in the Ural Mountains (Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 1998), accessed December 14, 2023, http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-94-011-5208-2. Zotero link: 5SCPDUZM |
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"Large chert cores were roughed out at quarries, not at valley sites."
[1]
From earliest times people of American bottom were visiting a number of sources. This is not mentioned in current literature. Two examples: Wyandot, in the Ohio river valley and Mill Creek just south of the American bottom.
[1]: (Milner 2006, 82) |
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