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"Emerging from their heartland in the vicinity of Uraiyur along the banks of the river Kaveri in the mid-9th century, they soon controlled the entire Tamil-speaking area."
[1]
[1]: (Mahalakshmi 2016: 1), Mahalakshmi, Rakesh. 2016. ‘Chola (Cola) Empire’. In The Encyclopedia of Empire, edited by John M. MacKenzie, 1st ed., 1–7. Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe366. Zotero ID: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ET6Z69AC. |
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“in the Carolingian Empire (largely patterned after Byzantium), a dying Latin was revived for the administration of Church and State”
[1]
[1]: (Kahane 1986, 495-496) Kahane, H. 1986. A Typology of the Prestige Language. Language 62(3): 495-508. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/39X3SZZP/library |
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probably very similar to Archaic Egyptian
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Information of the spoken and written language of Bronze Age Cretans during the Neopalatial period is scant due to the limited number of written documents. The few preserved documents were written in Linear A script which is still undeciphered.
[1]
[2]
What language was recorded in Linear A documents is an issue of vivid debate. Some consider it part of the eastern family of Indo-European languages and have attempted to connected it to Luwian or Hittite while others connected to Semitic, Phoenecian, Indo-Iranian, or Tyrrenian.
[3]
[4]
[5]
It is possible however that Linear A express a pre-Hellenic Aegean linguistic substrate "which was enriched over time throughout possible migrations to the island, as well as various extra-Cretan contacts with other linguists elements, including Greek world. Thus, we could speaking of an age-old indigenous ’Minoan’ language that survived in some parts of Crete until the first millennium B.C. and appears as "Eteocretan" on inscriptions such as those from Praisos and Dreros."
[6]
[1]: Tomas, H. 2010. " Cretan hieroglyphic and Linear A," in Cline, E.H. (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean (ca. 3000-1000 BC), Oxford, 340-55 [2]: Boulotis, C. 2008. "The art of Cretan writing," in Andreadaki-Vlazaki, M., Rethemiotakis, G., and Dimopoulou-Rethemiotaki, N. (eds), From the Land of the Labyrinth. Minoan Crete, 3000-1100 B.C., New York, 67-78. [3]: Nagy, G. 1963. "Greek-like elements in Linear A," Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 4, 181-211 [4]: Owens, G. 1999. "The structure of the Minoan language," Journal of Indo-European Studies 27, 15-56 [5]: Owens, G. 2007. Η Δομή της Μινωικής Γλώσσας, Heraklion [6]: Boulotis, C. 2008. "The art of Cretan writing," in Andreadaki-Vlazaki, M., Rethemiotakis, G., and Dimopoulou-Rethemiotaki, N. (eds), From the Land of the Labyrinth. Minoan Crete, 3000-1100 B.C., New York, 70. |
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"Cahokia was made up of different ethnic groups, perhaps even different linguistic groups."
[1]
However Cahokia did not exist in this period: "The people that were a part of Cahokia made a conscious decision not to continue after ca. A.D. 1250."
[2]
"We know that by the mid-300s Cahokia was basically abandoned."
[3]
[1]: (Peregrine/Emerson 2014, 13) [2]: (Peregrine/Kelly 2014, 24) [3]: (Iseminger 2010, 148) |
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“in the Carolingian Empire (largely patterned after Byzantium), a dying Latin was revived for the administration of Church and State”
[1]
[1]: (Kahane 1986, 495-496) Kahane, H. 1986. A Typology of the Prestige Language. Language 62(3): 495-508. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/39X3SZZP/library |
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“‘Gothic’ was probably the military pidgin cant of the Mediterranean armies, a mix of Greek, Latin, and Germanic elements, the product of the intermingling of soldiers of diverse backgrounds in the 5th and 6th centuries. It should not be thought of as widely known or as the primary language of the people our sources call Goths. Latin held that distinction, a language known by all inhabitants of Italy regardless of origin.113 This can be inferred because the sources never indicate that communication was a problem. Liberius is not known to have spoken Gothic, but had no trouble leading troops. Many of Cassiodorus’ letters are addressed to people with Germanic names and they were written in Latin.”
[1]
[1]: (Swain 2016: 223) Swain, B. 2016. Goths and Gothic Identity in the Ostrogothic Kingdom. In Arnold, Bjornlie and Sessa (eds) A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy pp. 203-233. Brill. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/87H7UDXS/item-list |
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There are no written records from this phase, but later evidence shows that people in the valley spoke Zapotec, possibly from the succeeding San José Mogote phase, and the Otomanguean language families may have split before the start of this period.
[1]
[1]: Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1983). "The Cloud People." New York, p4-7 |
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There are no written records from this phase, but later evidence shows that people in the valley spoke Zapotec, possibly from the succeeding San José Mogote phase, and the Otomanguean language families may have split before the start of this period.
[1]
[1]: Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1983). "The Cloud People." New York, p4-7 |
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“Today, there is a consensus that ASA [Ancient South Arabian] constitutes a group of related Central Semitic languages, namely Sabaic, Qatabanic, Minaic, and Hadramitic, so called by modern scholars after the names of the ancient kingdoms in which they were spoken. Although a case has been made for the existence of a fifth language, spoken in the kingdom of Himyar and corresponding to the ‘Himyar’ language referred to by medieval Arabic authors like al-Hamdani, who in fact claims that Himyari was still spoken in parts of Yemen in his own day, it is more likely that the Himyarites spoke a southern dialect of Sabaic in pre-Islamic times, and that what was known during the early Islamic period as Himyari represents the final stages of Sabaic.”
[1]
[1]: (Hatke 2019: 2) Hatke, G. 2019. The Other South Arabians: The Ancient South Arabian Kingdoms and Their MSA (Modern South Arabian) Neighbors, ca. 300 BCE-550 CE. In Hatke, G. and Ruzicka, R. (eds.) Ancient South Arabia through History: Kingdoms, Tribes, and Traders pp. 1-62. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XKMAIRCX/library |
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“Today, there is a consensus that ASA [Ancient South Arabian] constitutes a group of related Central Semitic languages, namely Sabaic, Qatabanic, Minaic, and Hadramitic, so called by modern scholars after the names of the ancient kingdoms in which they were spoken. Although a case has been made for the existence of a fifth language, spoken in the kingdom of Himyar and corresponding to the ‘Himyar’ language referred to by medieval Arabic authors like al-Hamdani, who in fact claims that Himyari was still spoken in parts of Yemen in his own day, it is more likely that the Himyarites spoke a southern dialect of Sabaic in pre-Islamic times, and that what was known during the early Islamic period as Himyari represents the final stages of Sabaic.”
[1]
[1]: (Hatke 2019: 2) Hatke, G. 2019. The Other South Arabians: The Ancient South Arabian Kingdoms and Their MSA (Modern South Arabian) Neighbors, ca. 300 BCE-550 CE. In Hatke, G. and Ruzicka, R. (eds.) Ancient South Arabia through History: Kingdoms, Tribes, and Traders pp. 1-62. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XKMAIRCX/library |
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The Indus script has not yet been deciphered by linguists: "The nature and content of the Indus script has been extensively debated in the literature. More than a hundred attempts have been made to assign meanings to various signs and sign combinations, relating it to proto-Dravidian language (see Parpola 2009, 1994, Mahadevan 1998) on the one hand and to Sanskrit (Rao 1982) on the other. It has even been suggested that the script is entirely numeric (Subbarayappa 1997). However, no consistent and generally agreed interpretation exists and most interpretations are at variance with each other and, at times, internally inconsistent (Possehl 1996)."
[1]
There were almost certainly a wide range of languages spoken, perhaps including one (or several) from an ancient language family known as ’Proto-Dravidian’.
[2]
[3]
"Para-Munda, spoken in the Punjab at the time when the Rigvedic Aryans arrived and seemingly also by the Late Harappan settlers who were moving eastward into the Ganges region, must have been in the subcontinent for a considerable period. If the area where it was spoken in the Pre-Harappan period included the Indo-Iranian borderlands, then it is likely that Para-Munda was the main Harappan language, at least in the Punjab and probably throughout the civilization, and that Dravidian was a language spoken by the indigenous inhabitants of the west, possibly as far northwest as Saurashtra. In this case the language of the PostHarappans in Gujarat may have developed into the North Dravidian branch.//Alternatively Para-Munda may have been the language spoken by the hunter-gatherer-fisher communities that inhabited the Indus region before the people of the borderlands settled in the plains. If the newcomers to the region in the fifth millennium were Dravidian speakers, then it is possible that a Dravidian language was spoken by at least some of the farmers and pastoralists of the borderlands who settled in the plains and therefore by some Harappans but that Para-Munda remained the main language of many Harappan inhabitants of the Punjab.Studies of the Harappan script indicate that it was used to write a single language. It seems plausible that the overarching cultural unity of the Harappans would be matched by the existence of an official language, used in writing and spoken as a lingua franca throughout the Harappan realms. Nevertheless, it is quite possible that one or several other languages were also spoken in the Harappan state, specific to different regions or occupational groups, reflecting the different communities that had come together in its formation. Prolonged bilingualism is known to have occurred in other areas, for example in Mesopotamia where Sumerian and Akkadian coexisted for many centuries: though they belonged originally to the south and north parts of southern Mesopotamia (Sumer and Akkad), educated people from both regions spoke both languages."
[4]
[1]: (Yadav and Vahia 2011, 3) Nisha Yadav and M.N. Vahia. 2011. Indus Script: A Study of its Sign Design. SCRIPTA 3: 1-36. [2]: Possehl, Gregory L., ‘The Transformation of the Indus Civilization’, Journal of World Prehistory, 11 (1997): 462 [3]: Gregory L. Possehl. The Indus Civilization. A Contemporary Perspective. Walnut Creek, Altamira, 2002, p.248 [4]: (McIntosh 2008 page 2355-356) Jane McIntosh. 2008. The Ancient Indus Valley. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO. |
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Khmer or Cambodian
[1]
’The Khmer language, which is distantly related to Vietnamese and many minority languages spoken in mainland Southeast Asia, belongs to the Mon-Khmer subset of the Austroasiatic family of languages. Over fifty distinct Austroasiatic languages are spoken across a wide swath of the Asian main- land, stretching from eastern India westward to Vietnam. Of these languages, only Khmer and Mon possess alphabets of their own.The Mons and the Khmers are also the only speakers of Austroasiatic languages to practice settled agri- culture. The earliest evidence of written Khmer comes from an inscription incised in southern Cambodia of the seventh century C.E., using an alphabet derived from southern India, which, in modified form, remains in use in contemporary Cambodia. The Thais adapted the alphabet for their own use in the thirteenth century C.E.’
[2]
’Linguistically and genetically an Austro-Asiatic group, the Mon belong to the Mon-Khmer ethnological unit. Archaeological remains have shown that they inhabited the area of the Mekong Delta and Tonle Sap regions of present- day Cambodia, northeast Thailand, and around the Gulf of Thailand from at least the beginning of the Common Era (C.E.). Perhaps they date even earlier, as evidence of an Austro-Asiatic group has been found in western Thailand in Kanchanaburi Province near the village of Ban Kao, dating from Neolithic times (10,000 B.C.E.). Archaeological remains indicate that a Mon civilization based on Theravada Buddhism was present in northeast Thailand up to around the early ninth century, when it was overtaken by the Khmers of Angkor expanding from cen- tral Cambodia at the beginning of the reign of Jayavarman II (770/790/802?-834 C.E.).’
[3]
’In northeast Thailand, for example, most Hinayana Buddhist stupas yielded to the standardized prasat structures of Angkorian Hinduism or Mahayana Buddhism.58 In 1200 people who spoke Khmer as their primary tongue probably formed a majority in the Cambodian plain, the Mekong basin as far north as That Phanom, much of the Chi and Mun river valleys, and the area im- mediately north and east of present-day Bangkok.59 But the lowlands also contained very substantial non-Khmer populations. Those parts of the Chaophraya basin subject to Angkor, for example, were dominated by Mon- and later by Tai-speakers, both of whom tended to be more attached to Hinayana Buddhism than to Hinduism. The basin also in- cluded people who in later times might be labeled Malay, Cham, or Karen.60 Angkor itself by 1297, according to Zhou Daguan, had Siamese (Tai) settlers as well as a large population of enslaved hill peoples, who were treated as a race apart. Each city and village in Cambodia, he added, had its own Khmer dialect.61’
[4]
’Here are the most salient traits of the Post-Classic: [...] Theravada Buddhism as the state religion, with Pali rather than Sanskrit as its language.’
[5]
’Here are the most salient traits of the Post-Classic: [...] Middle Khmer replaces Old Khmer as the language of the people and of the court.’
[5]
’Secondly, during the period in question and even long afterwards, the Cambodian and Thai courts were inextricably linked. Khmer intellectuals were steeped in Thai language and literature, and had come to think that the Ayutthaya chronicles were something to imitate; thus, they forced the Cambodian chronicles into a Thai model.’
[6]
[1]: (http://www.ethnologue.com/language/khm) [2]: (Chandler 2004, p. 729) [3]: (James 2004, p. 904) [4]: (Lieberman 2003, p. 231) [5]: (Coe 2003, p. 195) [6]: (Coe 2003, p. 199) |
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probably very similar to Archaic Egyptian
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Describing the Shiwei: "Their language is variously described as similar to Kitan and Qai (Chinese, Xi), that is, Mongolic, or as similar to Mohe (Malgal or Mukri), that is, Manchu-Tungusic."
[1]
"According to the Wei Shu, Sui Shu and Jiu Tangshu, it seems that the Shiwei were of Khitan origin, since the Shiwei and Khitan shared the similar ethnic stock and the same language as recorded in the above three dynastic histories." [2] [1]: (Atwood 2004, 502) [2]: (Xu 2005, 176) |
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probably very similar to Archaic Egyptian
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Demotic was introduced in the early Saite period, and spread throughout Egypt. A very important phenomenon.
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Sinitic language family.
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There is no data about language used by Badarian culture, especially because a writing system was yet to be invented.
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"The Achaemenid sources of the 6th century BCE are the first to mention Sogdiana and its inhabitants, the Sogdians. The individu- alization of this people in the texts demonstrates the existence of an ethnic identity before a linguistic reality, for if in this work we define the Sogdians as those who spoke Sogdian as their native language, we must note that the separation of Sogdian from the other Iranian languages probably took place only very progressively in the course of the Achaemenid period."
[1]
[1]: (De la Vaissière 2005, 16) |
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"The people whose material culture is studied here did not yet, as far as we know, use the Eastern Zhou term Zhongguo, or “middle kingdoms,” nor is there any evidence that they considered themselves to have a common collective identity. Indeed, it is likely that many, if not most, of those within the area of what is now the People’s Republic of China did not speak any language ancestral to modern Chinese. In addition to archaic Chinese, there would have been speakers of other Sino-Tibetan languages, as well as Altaic, Austroasiatic, Hmong-Mien, Tai-Kadai, Austronesian, and perhaps even Indo-European languages."
[1]
[1]: (Campbell 2014, 13) |
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"five major languages attested—Sabaʾic, Maʿīnic, Qatabānic, Ḥaḍramawtic, and Old Arabic"
[1]
[1]: (Robin 2015: 94) Robin, Christian Julien. 2015. “Before Himyar: Epigraphic Evidence for the Kingdoms of South Arabia.” In Arabs and Empires before Islam, edited by Greg Fisher, 91-126. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www-oxfordscholarship-com.ezp.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199654529.001.0001/acprof-9780199654529-chapter-3. |
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Most population spoke Minoan while early Greek was mostly used in administration.
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Most population spoke Minoan while early Greek was mostly used in administration.
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Strictly speaking, "Canaanite" could refer to a number of closely related Northwest Semitic dialects spoken during the period that are distinct from Aramaic dialects (by the use of the h- prefix for the definite article). They include early Phoenician, early Hebrew, and several other local dialects.
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Prakrit and Sanskrit were official, court languages, while Kannada was probably the "colloquial" language
[1]
EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: http://seshat.info/File:Kadambamaps.nelson.png
[1]: Suryanatha Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka (1980), p. 40 |
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Coded as Hoysalas.
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Coded as Hoysalas.
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Unknown?
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Information of the spoken and written language of Bronze Age Cretans during the Prepalatial period do not exist.
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"The Qaraquyunlu and Aqquyunlu tribal entities which succeeded the Timurids on the region’s political scene pursued a similarly inclusive ’project’: Islam was their religion, their tribal military levies were Turks, their administrators were Tajiks and their cultural discourse was Persian."
[1]
[1]: (Newman 2009) Newman, Andrew J. 2009. Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire. I.B. Tauris. New York. |
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The original Ilkhans were Mongols and therefore spoke Mongolian. Manuscripts were written in Persian and Arabic.
[1]
[1]: Stefano Carboni, ’IL-KHANIDS iii. Book Illustration’ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-iii-book-illustration |
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"The Elamite written language was used as the official language in the bureaucracy for a long time, rivaling the Sumerian and Akkadian languages even over a thousand years later, during the Old Persian Empire of the Achaemenids."
[1]
[1]: (Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. |
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"five major languages attested—Sabaʾic, Maʿīnic, Qatabānic, Ḥaḍramawtic, and Old Arabic"
[1]
[1]: (Robin 2015: 94) Robin, Christian Julien. 2015. “Before Himyar: Epigraphic Evidence for the Kingdoms of South Arabia.” In Arabs and Empires before Islam, edited by Greg Fisher, 91-126. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZMFH42PE. |
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Sumerian in neighbouring Mesopotamia: "Until Sargon, records from Akkad had been written in Sumerian."
[1]
Proto-Elamite descendent fro Uruk IV writing and developed different signs to the Sumerian of Jemdet Nasr. Susiana was a centre of Proto-Elamite culture along with Tall-i Malyan at Fars.
[2]
Susa III texts c3000 BCE not related to Old Elamite inscriptions c2300 BCE. "simply indefensible to claim that Malyan was the site at which the Susa III writing system originated." It was a system derived from proto-cuneiform Susa II / Uruk IV.
[3]
[1]: (Middleton 2015) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge. [2]: (Leverani 2014, 91) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. [3]: (Potts 2016, 71) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. |
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JFR: Latin was the language of administration, but by this period various dialects of Italian (Romanesco in the city of Rome; Romagnola in Emilia-Romagna; and so forth) were emerging as written languages, besides being the languages of everyday speech.
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"In Africa, Punic was widely spoken as well as Latin, and in a famous passage of The City of God Augustine reminds the reader that the imperious Roman capital had not only placed the yoke of dominion on defeated peoples; it had also imposed Latin as the official language (Augustine, The City of God, 19, 7)."
[1]
[1]: (Triana 2011, 86) Giusto Triana. 2011. 428 AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. Princeton University Press. |
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Middle Japanese 12th-16th century.
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Khmer or Cambodian
[1]
’The Khmer language, which is distantly related to Vietnamese and many minority languages spoken in mainland Southeast Asia, belongs to the Mon-Khmer subset of the Austroasiatic family of languages. Over fifty distinct Austroasiatic languages are spoken across a wide swath of the Asian main- land, stretching from eastern India westward to Vietnam. Of these languages, only Khmer and Mon possess alphabets of their own.The Mons and the Khmers are also the only speakers of Austroasiatic languages to practice settled agri- culture. The earliest evidence of written Khmer comes from an inscription incised in southern Cambodia of the seventh century C.E., using an alphabet derived from southern India, which, in modified form, remains in use in contemporary Cambodia. The Thais adapted the alphabet for their own use in the thirteenth century C.E.’
[2]
’Linguistically and genetically an Austro-Asiatic group, the Mon belong to the Mon-Khmer ethnological unit. Archaeological remains have shown that they inhabited the area of the Mekong Delta and Tonle Sap regions of present- day Cambodia, northeast Thailand, and around the Gulf of Thailand from at least the beginning of the Common Era (C.E.). Perhaps they date even earlier, as evidence of an Austro-Asiatic group has been found in western Thailand in Kanchanaburi Province near the village of Ban Kao, dating from Neolithic times (10,000 B.C.E.). Archaeological remains indicate that a Mon civilization based on Theravada Buddhism was present in northeast Thailand up to around the early ninth century, when it was overtaken by the Khmers of Angkor expanding from cen- tral Cambodia at the beginning of the reign of Jayavarman II (770/790/802?-834 C.E.).’
[3]
’In northeast Thailand, for example, most Hinayana Buddhist stupas yielded to the standardized prasat structures of Angkorian Hinduism or Mahayana Buddhism.58 In 1200 people who spoke Khmer as their primary tongue probably formed a majority in the Cambodian plain, the Mekong basin as far north as That Phanom, much of the Chi and Mun river valleys, and the area im- mediately north and east of present-day Bangkok.59 But the lowlands also contained very substantial non-Khmer populations. Those parts of the Chaophraya basin subject to Angkor, for example, were dominated by Mon- and later by Tai-speakers, both of whom tended to be more attached to Hinayana Buddhism than to Hinduism. The basin also included people who in later times might be labeled Malay, Cham, or Karen.60 Angkor itself by 1297, according to Zhou Daguan, had Siamese (Tai) settlers as well as a large population of enslaved hill peoples, who were treated as a race apart. Each city and village in Cambodia, he added, had its own Khmer dialect.61’
[4]
[1]: (http://www.ethnologue.com/language/khm) [2]: (Chandler 2004, p. 729) [3]: (James 2004, p. 904) [4]: (Lieberman 2003, p. 231) |
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Khmer or Cambodian
[1]
’The Khmer language, which is distantly related to Vietnamese and many minority languages spoken in mainland Southeast Asia, belongs to the Mon-Khmer subset of the Austroasiatic family of languages. Over fifty distinct Austroasiatic languages are spoken across a wide swath of the Asian main- land, stretching from eastern India westward to Vietnam. Of these languages, only Khmer and Mon possess alphabets of their own.The Mons and the Khmers are also the only speakers of Austroasiatic languages to practice settled agri- culture. The earliest evidence of written Khmer comes from an inscription incised in southern Cambodia of the seventh century C.E., using an alphabet derived from southern India, which, in modified form, remains in use in contemporary Cambodia. The Thais adapted the alphabet for their own use in the thirteenth century C.E.’
[2]
’Linguistically and genetically an Austro-Asiatic group, the Mon belong to the Mon-Khmer ethnological unit. Archaeological remains have shown that they inhabited the area of the Mekong Delta and Tonle Sap regions of present- day Cambodia, northeast Thailand, and around the Gulf of Thailand from at least the beginning of the Common Era (C.E.). Perhaps they date even earlier, as evidence of an Austro-Asiatic group has been found in western Thailand in Kanchanaburi Province near the village of Ban Kao, dating from Neolithic times (10,000 B.C.E.). Archaeological remains indicate that a Mon civilization based on Theravada Buddhism was present in northeast Thailand up to around the early ninth century, when it was overtaken by the Khmers of Angkor expanding from cen- tral Cambodia at the beginning of the reign of Jayavarman II (770/790/802?-834 C.E.).’
[3]
’In northeast Thailand, for example, most Hinayana Buddhist stupas yielded to the standardized prasat structures of Angkorian Hinduism or Mahayana Buddhism.58 In 1200 people who spoke Khmer as their primary tongue probably formed a majority in the Cambodian plain, the Mekong basin as far north as That Phanom, much of the Chi and Mun river valleys, and the area im- mediately north and east of present-day Bangkok.59 But the lowlands also contained very substantial non-Khmer populations. Those parts of the Chaophraya basin subject to Angkor, for example, were dominated by Mon- and later by Tai-speakers, both of whom tended to be more attached to Hinayana Buddhism than to Hinduism. The basin also included people who in later times might be labeled Malay, Cham, or Karen.60 Angkor itself by 1297, according to Zhou Daguan, had Siamese (Tai) settlers as well as a large population of enslaved hill peoples, who were treated as a race apart. Each city and village in Cambodia, he added, had its own Khmer dialect.61’
[4]
[1]: (http://www.ethnologue.com/language/khm) [2]: (Chandler 2004, p. 729) [3]: (James 2004, p. 904) [4]: (Lieberman 2003, p. 231) |
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Khmer or Cambodian
[1]
’The Khmer language, which is distantly related to Vietnamese and many minority languages spoken in mainland Southeast Asia, belongs to the Mon-Khmer subset of the Austroasiatic family of languages. Over fifty distinct Austroasiatic languages are spoken across a wide swath of the Asian main- land, stretching from eastern India westward to Vietnam. Of these languages, only Khmer and Mon possess alphabets of their own.The Mons and the Khmers are also the only speakers of Austroasiatic languages to practice settled agri- culture. The earliest evidence of written Khmer comes from an inscription incised in southern Cambodia of the seventh century C.E., using an alphabet derived from southern India, which, in modified form, remains in use in contemporary Cambodia. The Thais adapted the alphabet for their own use in the thirteenth century C.E.’
[2]
’Linguistically and genetically an Austro-Asiatic group, the Mon belong to the Mon-Khmer ethnological unit. Archaeological remains have shown that they inhabited the area of the Mekong Delta and Tonle Sap regions of present- day Cambodia, northeast Thailand, and around the Gulf of Thailand from at least the beginning of the Common Era (C.E.). Perhaps they date even earlier, as evidence of an Austro-Asiatic group has been found in western Thailand in Kanchanaburi Province near the village of Ban Kao, dating from Neolithic times (10,000 B.C.E.). Archaeological remains indicate that a Mon civilization based on Theravada Buddhism was present in northeast Thailand up to around the early ninth century, when it was overtaken by the Khmers of Angkor expanding from cen- tral Cambodia at the beginning of the reign of Jayavarman II (770/790/802?-834 C.E.).’
[3]
’In northeast Thailand, for example, most Hinayana Buddhist stupas yielded to the standardized prasat structures of Angkorian Hinduism or Mahayana Buddhism.58 In 1200 people who spoke Khmer as their primary tongue probably formed a majority in the Cambodian plain, the Mekong basin as far north as That Phanom, much of the Chi and Mun river valleys, and the area im- mediately north and east of present-day Bangkok.59 But the lowlands also contained very substantial non-Khmer populations. Those parts of the Chaophraya basin subject to Angkor, for example, were dominated by Mon- and later by Tai-speakers, both of whom tended to be more attached to Hinayana Buddhism than to Hinduism. The basin also included people who in later times might be labeled Malay, Cham, or Karen.60 Angkor itself by 1297, according to Zhou Daguan, had Siamese (Tai) settlers as well as a large population of enslaved hill peoples, who were treated as a race apart. Each city and village in Cambodia, he added, had its own Khmer dialect.61’
[4]
[1]: (http://www.ethnologue.com/language/khm) [2]: (Chandler 2004, p. 729) [3]: (James 2004, p. 904) [4]: (Lieberman 2003, p. 231) |
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"“A more likely explanation, advanced by L.P. Briggs, is that the increasing interaction between Khmer- and Mon-speaking residents of the Thai central plain, with the Mons being devotees of Theravada Buddhism, led gradually, over a half century orso, to the conversion of Khmer speakers farther east."
[1]
[1]: (Chandler 2008, 81) |
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Khmer or Cambodian
[1]
’The Khmer language, which is distantly related to Vietnamese and many minority languages spoken in mainland Southeast Asia, belongs to the Mon-Khmer subset of the Austroasiatic family of languages. Over fifty distinct Austroasiatic languages are spoken across a wide swath of the Asian main- land, stretching from eastern India westward to Vietnam. Of these languages, only Khmer and Mon possess alphabets of their own.The Mons and the Khmers are also the only speakers of Austroasiatic languages to practice settled agri- culture. The earliest evidence of written Khmer comes from an inscription incised in southern Cambodia of the seventh century C.E., using an alphabet derived from southern India, which, in modified form, remains in use in contemporary Cambodia. The Thais adapted the alphabet for their own use in the thirteenth century C.E.’
[2]
’Linguistically and genetically an Austro-Asiatic group, the Mon belong to the Mon-Khmer ethnological unit. Archaeological remains have shown that they inhabited the area of the Mekong Delta and Tonle Sap regions of present- day Cambodia, northeast Thailand, and around the Gulf of Thailand from at least the beginning of the Common Era (C.E.). Perhaps they date even earlier, as evidence of an Austro-Asiatic group has been found in western Thailand in Kanchanaburi Province near the village of Ban Kao, dating from Neolithic times (10,000 B.C.E.). Archaeological remains indicate that a Mon civilization based on Theravada Buddhism was present in northeast Thailand up to around the early ninth century, when it was overtaken by the Khmers of Angkor expanding from cen- tral Cambodia at the beginning of the reign of Jayavarman II (770/790/802?-834 C.E.).’
[3]
’In northeast Thailand, for example, most Hinayana Buddhist stupas yielded to the standardized prasat structures of Angkorian Hinduism or Mahayana Buddhism.58 In 1200 people who spoke Khmer as their primary tongue probably formed a majority in the Cambodian plain, the Mekong basin as far north as That Phanom, much of the Chi and Mun river valleys, and the area im- mediately north and east of present-day Bangkok.59 But the lowlands also contained very substantial non-Khmer populations. Those parts of the Chaophraya basin subject to Angkor, for example, were dominated by Mon- and later by Tai-speakers, both of whom tended to be more attached to Hinayana Buddhism than to Hinduism. The basin also in- cluded people who in later times might be labeled Malay, Cham, or Karen.60 Angkor itself by 1297, according to Zhou Daguan, had Siamese (Tai) settlers as well as a large population of enslaved hill peoples, who were treated as a race apart. Each city and village in Cambodia, he added, had its own Khmer dialect.61’
[4]
’Here are the most salient traits of the Post-Classic: [...] Theravada Buddhism as the state religion, with Pali rather than Sanskrit as its language.’
[5]
’Here are the most salient traits of the Post-Classic: [...] Middle Khmer replaces Old Khmer as the language of the people and of the court.’
[5]
’Secondly, during the period in question and even long afterwards, the Cambodian and Thai courts were inextricably linked. Khmer intellectuals were steeped in Thai language and literature, and had come to think that the Ayutthaya chronicles were something to imitate; thus, they forced the Cambodian chronicles into a Thai model.’
[6]
[1]: (http://www.ethnologue.com/language/khm) [2]: (Chandler 2004, p. 729) [3]: (James 2004, p. 904) [4]: (Lieberman 2003, p. 231) [5]: (Coe 2003, p. 195) [6]: (Coe 2003, p. 199) |
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mid-14th century onwards? "Arabic became important both for the diffusion of religion and for communications and trade."
[1]
mid-14th century onwards? Arabic "was used for official correspondence in the Ghana Empire before the end of the twelfth century and in Mali in the mid-fourteenth century."
[1]
[1]: (Lapidus 2012, 592) |
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Coins were minted with Greek, Prakrit and Brāhmī script on them.
[1]
[1]: http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/indo-greek-dynasty |
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Coins were minted with Greek, Prakrit and Brāhmī script on them.
[1]
[1]: http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/indo-greek-dynasty |
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There are no written records from this phase, but later evidence shows that people in the valley spoke Zapotec, possibly from the succeeding San José Mogote phase, and the Otomanguean language families may have split before the start of this period.
[1]
[1]: Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1983). "The Cloud People." New York, p4-7 |
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The Indus script has not yet been deciphered by linguists: "The nature and content of the Indus script has been extensively debated in the literature. More than a hundred attempts have been made to assign meanings to various signs and sign combinations, relating it to proto-Dravidian language (see Parpola 2009, 1994, Mahadevan 1998) on the one hand and to Sanskrit (Rao 1982) on the other. It has even been suggested that the script is entirely numeric (Subbarayappa 1997). However, no consistent and generally agreed interpretation exists and most interpretations are at variance with each other and, at times, internally inconsistent (Possehl 1996)."
[1]
There were almost certainly a wide range of languages spoken, perhaps including one (or several) from an ancient language family known as ’Proto-Dravidian’.
[2]
[3]
"Para-Munda, spoken in the Punjab at the time when the Rigvedic Aryans arrived and seemingly also by the Late Harappan settlers who were moving eastward into the Ganges region, must have been in the subcontinent for a considerable period. If the area where it was spoken in the Pre-Harappan period included the Indo-Iranian borderlands, then it is likely that Para-Munda was the main Harappan language, at least in the Punjab and probably throughout the civilization, and that Dravidian was a language spoken by the indigenous inhabitants of the west, possibly as far northwest as Saurashtra. In this case the language of the PostHarappans in Gujarat may have developed into the North Dravidian branch.//Alternatively Para-Munda may have been the language spoken by the hunter-gatherer-fisher communities that inhabited the Indus region before the people of the borderlands settled in the plains. If the newcomers to the region in the fifth millennium were Dravidian speakers, then it is possible that a Dravidian language was spoken by at least some of the farmers and pastoralists of the borderlands who settled in the plains and therefore by some Harappans but that Para-Munda remained the main language of many Harappan inhabitants of the Punjab.Studies of the Harappan script indicate that it was used to write a single language. It seems plausible that the overarching cultural unity of the Harappans would be matched by the existence of an official language, used in writing and spoken as a lingua franca throughout the Harappan realms. Nevertheless, it is quite possible that one or several other languages were also spoken in the Harappan state, specific to different regions or occupational groups, reflecting the different communities that had come together in its formation. Prolonged bilingualism is known to have occurred in other areas, for example in Mesopotamia where Sumerian and Akkadian coexisted for many centuries: though they belonged originally to the south and north parts of southern Mesopotamia (Sumer and Akkad), educated people from both regions spoke both languages."
[4]
[1]: (Yadav and Vahia 2011, 3) Nisha Yadav and M.N. Vahia. 2011. Indus Script: A Study of its Sign Design. SCRIPTA 3: 1-36. [2]: Possehl, Gregory L., ‘The Transformation of the Indus Civilization’, Journal of World Prehistory, 11 (1997): 462 [3]: Gregory L. Possehl. The Indus Civilization. A Contemporary Perspective. Walnut Creek, Altamira, 2002, p.248 [4]: (McIntosh 2008 page 2355-356) Jane McIntosh. 2008. The Ancient Indus Valley. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO. |
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Lysimachus was Macedonian.
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"Chagatai Turkish evolved as the language of the court and literature."
[1]
"Persian was the language of the bureaucratic administration and chancery correspondence"
[2]
The military administration, however, was "staffed by Turkic secretaries".
[2]
[1]: (Khan 2003, 35) Khan, A. 2003. A Historical Atlas of Uzbekistan. The Rosen Publishing Group. [2]: (Subtelny 2007, 69) Subtelny, Maria. 2007. Timurids in Transition: Turko-Persian Politics and Acculturation in Medieval Iran. BRILL. |
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"five major languages attested—Sabaʾic, Maʿīnic, Qatabānic, Ḥaḍramawtic, and Old Arabic"
[1]
[1]: (Robin 2015: 94) Robin, Christian Julien. 2015. “Before Himyar: Epigraphic Evidence for the Kingdoms of South Arabia.” In Arabs and Empires before Islam, edited by Greg Fisher, 91-126. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZMFH42PE. |
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inferred from geographic region
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Persian literature.
[1]
Claims of Ghurid poetry in Pashto unsubstantiated.
[1]
[1]: (Bosworth 2012) Bosworth, Edmund C. 2012. GHURIDS. Encyclopaedia Iranica. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ghurids |
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{Greek; Bactrian} The Seleucids brought the use of Greek into the region when they turned Bactria into a satrap; Bactrian was in use in this period (indeed until the 8th century BCE).
[1]
[1]: West, Barbara. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania.( Infobase Publishing, 2009) pp. 75; 245-247. |
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{Greek; Bactrian} The Seleucids brought the use of Greek into the region when they turned Bactria into a satrap; Bactrian was in use in this period (indeed until the 8th century BCE).
[1]
[1]: West, Barbara. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania.( Infobase Publishing, 2009) pp. 75; 245-247. |
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Bactrian; Iranian; Turkic According to the Chinese records from the period, the language of the Hephthalites was distinct from that of those Iranian-speaking people of Central Asia who were called Hu by the Chinese. However, there is no consensus among scholars.
[1]
Recent work has reappraised Chinese manuscript sources to postulate that the Hephtalites had ceased to retain their original Altaic language and adopted Bactrian by the end of the fourth century.
[2]
"Probably dominated by an Eastern Iranian language, but their mixed ancestry also lead to multilingualism."
[3]
[1]: Litvinsky B.A.,Guang-da Zhang , and Shabani Samghabadi R. (eds)History of Civilizations of Central Asia, p. 139 [2]: De la Vaissière, É. "Is there a Nationality of the Hephthalites." Bulletin of the Asia Institute 17 (2008): p. 122 [3]: (West 2009, 275) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing. |
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"Despite the evident ethnic and linguistic diversity, according to Bischof (1983, 1971) and 16th century sources (Indiferente General 1528 in Langebaek 2007: 44) a language called atanque was spoken by a majority of the indigenous population. Whether it was a lingua franca in use between the distinct ethnic groups in the surrounding area and these polities, or the most widespread language is still debated."
[1]
"Even the sacred language of the Kogi mamas - called "Tairona" or teijua - includes Spanish or Latin words and is interpreted by Jackson (1995:68) as a relatively recent derivation of a little-known, more ancient tongue. Even language cannot necessarily be assumed to represent the ancient languages spoken by the inhabitants of the chiefdoms that the Spanish found." [2] [1]: (Giraldo 2010, 59) [2]: (Langebaek 2005, 1-3) |
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inapplicable
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inapplicable
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"We do not know what language the Kidarites spoke".
[1]
Coinage had "inscriptions in Sogdian, Bactrian, Middle Persian and Brahmi."
[2]
"The Bactrian script and language were used for a long time after the Kushan age but only small fragments of Bactrian literary works have been discovered so far."
[3]
Administration was carried out at a regional level and probably in the local language by administrators recruited from the majority settled population.
[1]: (Zeimal 1996, 136) Zeimal, E. V. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf [2]: (Zeimal 1996, 136-137) Zeimal, E. V. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf [3]: (Harmatta 1994, 424) Harmatta, J. Languages and literature in the Kushan Empire. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing. |
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"We do not know what language the Kidarites spoke".
[1]
Coinage had "inscriptions in Sogdian, Bactrian, Middle Persian and Brahmi."
[2]
"The Bactrian script and language were used for a long time after the Kushan age but only small fragments of Bactrian literary works have been discovered so far."
[3]
Administration was carried out at a regional level and probably in the local language by administrators recruited from the majority settled population.
[1]: (Zeimal 1996, 136) Zeimal, E. V. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf [2]: (Zeimal 1996, 136-137) Zeimal, E. V. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf [3]: (Harmatta 1994, 424) Harmatta, J. Languages and literature in the Kushan Empire. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing. |
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"We do not know what language the Kidarites spoke".
[1]
Coinage had "inscriptions in Sogdian, Bactrian, Middle Persian and Brahmi."
[2]
"The Bactrian script and language were used for a long time after the Kushan age but only small fragments of Bactrian literary works have been discovered so far."
[3]
Administration was carried out at a regional level and probably in the local language by administrators recruited from the majority settled population.
[1]: (Zeimal 1996, 136) Zeimal, E. V. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf [2]: (Zeimal 1996, 136-137) Zeimal, E. V. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf [3]: (Harmatta 1994, 424) Harmatta, J. Languages and literature in the Kushan Empire. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing. |
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"We do not know what language the Kidarites spoke".
[1]
Coinage had "inscriptions in Sogdian, Bactrian, Middle Persian and Brahmi."
[2]
"The Bactrian script and language were used for a long time after the Kushan age but only small fragments of Bactrian literary works have been discovered so far."
[3]
Administration was carried out at a regional level and probably in the local language by administrators recruited from the majority settled population.
[1]: (Zeimal 1996, 136) Zeimal, E. V. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf [2]: (Zeimal 1996, 136-137) Zeimal, E. V. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf [3]: (Harmatta 1994, 424) Harmatta, J. Languages and literature in the Kushan Empire. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing. |
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Greek language on coins until reign of Kanishka I (128-150 CE). Thereafter only Bactrian script on coins. Kharoshthi discontinued on coins from the same time but "was almost exclusively employed on various types of inscriptions in Gandhara and it was also exclusively and extensively employed for compiling Buddhist texts in Gandhara all through the Kushan period. .. Kharoshthi was also employed on a fairly large scale for writing non-religious texts, such as legal documents, land transfer deeds, official letters, etc. in various parts of Xingjiang Province of China, particularly in the Kashgar-Khotan-Niya Region."
[1]
Kanishka I (155-190 CE) era inscriptions (Rabatak and Surkh Kotal) found in Bactrian script employing monumental Greek script rather than the cursive style.
[1]
the state chancery used both "Bactrian written in Greek script and Gandhari written in Kharoshthi".
[2]
There also was a "formulae transmitted from the Achaemenians."
[3]
Sanskrit and Prakrit (of various types) were literary languages.
[4]
Official: Bactrian; {Regional: Gandhari; Sogdian; Greek; Chorasmian; Tocharian; Saka dialects}; Liturgical: Sanskrit.
[1]: (Samad 2011, 89) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing. [2]: (Grenet 2012, 1-2) Grenet, Franz. 2012. The Nomadic Element in the Kushan Empire. (1st-3rd Century AD). Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. Volume 3. Center for Central Eurasian Studies. Seoul National University. [3]: (Grenet 2012, 2) Grenet, Franz. 2012. The Nomadic Element in the Kushan Empire. (1st-3rd Century AD). Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. Volume 3. Center for Central Eurasian Studies. Seoul National University. [4]: (Harmatta 1994, 425) Harmatta, J. Languages and literature in the Kushan Empire. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing. |
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Greek language on coins until reign of Kanishka I (128-150 CE). Thereafter only Bactrian script on coins. Kharoshthi discontinued on coins from the same time but "was almost exclusively employed on various types of inscriptions in Gandhara and it was also exclusively and extensively employed for compiling Buddhist texts in Gandhara all through the Kushan period. .. Kharoshthi was also employed on a fairly large scale for writing non-religious texts, such as legal documents, land transfer deeds, official letters, etc. in various parts of Xingjiang Province of China, particularly in the Kashgar-Khotan-Niya Region."
[1]
Kanishka I (155-190 CE) era inscriptions (Rabatak and Surkh Kotal) found in Bactrian script employing monumental Greek script rather than the cursive style.
[1]
the state chancery used both "Bactrian written in Greek script and Gandhari written in Kharoshthi".
[2]
There also was a "formulae transmitted from the Achaemenians."
[3]
Sanskrit and Prakrit (of various types) were literary languages.
[4]
Official: Bactrian; {Regional: Gandhari; Sogdian; Greek; Chorasmian; Tocharian; Saka dialects}; Liturgical: Sanskrit.
[1]: (Samad 2011, 89) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing. [2]: (Grenet 2012, 1-2) Grenet, Franz. 2012. The Nomadic Element in the Kushan Empire. (1st-3rd Century AD). Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. Volume 3. Center for Central Eurasian Studies. Seoul National University. [3]: (Grenet 2012, 2) Grenet, Franz. 2012. The Nomadic Element in the Kushan Empire. (1st-3rd Century AD). Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. Volume 3. Center for Central Eurasian Studies. Seoul National University. [4]: (Harmatta 1994, 425) Harmatta, J. Languages and literature in the Kushan Empire. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing. |
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Entry field has been edited to make it machine readable French; Langues d’Oïl; Occitan: 1000-1200 CE
[1]
During 11th and 12th centuries the population that lived south of the Loire spoke Occitan.
[2]
Celtic language still strong in Brittany, even among the aristocrats.
[3]
[1]: (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 112) [2]: (Nicolle and McBridge 1991, 3) [3]: (Nicolle and McBridge 2000, 6) |
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Greek language on coins until reign of Kanishka I (128-150 CE). Thereafter only Bactrian script on coins. Kharoshthi discontinued on coins from the same time but "was almost exclusively employed on various types of inscriptions in Gandhara and it was also exclusively and extensively employed for compiling Buddhist texts in Gandhara all through the Kushan period. .. Kharoshthi was also employed on a fairly large scale for writing non-religious texts, such as legal documents, land transfer deeds, official letters, etc. in various parts of Xingjiang Province of China, particularly in the Kashgar-Khotan-Niya Region."
[1]
Kanishka I (155-190 CE) era inscriptions (Rabatak and Surkh Kotal) found in Bactrian script employing monumental Greek script rather than the cursive style.
[1]
the state chancery used both "Bactrian written in Greek script and Gandhari written in Kharoshthi".
[2]
There also was a "formulae transmitted from the Achaemenians."
[3]
Sanskrit and Prakrit (of various types) were literary languages.
[4]
Official: Bactrian; {Regional: Gandhari; Sogdian; Greek; Chorasmian; Tocharian; Saka dialects}; Liturgical: Sanskrit.
[1]: (Samad 2011, 89) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing. [2]: (Grenet 2012, 1-2) Grenet, Franz. 2012. The Nomadic Element in the Kushan Empire. (1st-3rd Century AD). Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. Volume 3. Center for Central Eurasian Studies. Seoul National University. [3]: (Grenet 2012, 2) Grenet, Franz. 2012. The Nomadic Element in the Kushan Empire. (1st-3rd Century AD). Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. Volume 3. Center for Central Eurasian Studies. Seoul National University. [4]: (Harmatta 1994, 425) Harmatta, J. Languages and literature in the Kushan Empire. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing. |
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There is still no consensus on the language of the Yuezhi: ’Some authors believe they originally spoke a "Tocharian" language, and others that they spoke an eastern Iranic or proto-Turkic language’.
[1]
Benjamin describes Tocharian as ’the Indo-European language spoken by the core Yuezhi’.
[2]
However, ’By the time Kajula Kadphrises ... established the Kingdom of the Kushans in Bactria, the Kushans had adopted Bactrian as their spoken language".
[3]
[1]: (Hill 2009, 312) John E. Hill. 2009. Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. An Annotated Translation of the Chronicle on the ’Western Regions’ from the Hou Hanshu. Charleston, SC: BookSurge Publishing. [2]: (Benjamin 2003) C. Benjamin. 2003. ’The Yuezhi Migration and Sogdia’, in Ēran ud Anērān: Studies Presented to Boris Ilich Marshak on the Occasion of His 70th Birthday, edited by Matteo Compareti, Paola Raffeta and Gianroberto Scarcia. Transoxiana Webfestschrift Series I, published online at http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/. [3]: (Samad 2011, 88) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing. |
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|
There is still no consensus on the language of the Yuezhi: ’Some authors believe they originally spoke a "Tocharian" language, and others that they spoke an eastern Iranic or proto-Turkic language’.
[1]
Benjamin describes Tocharian as ’the Indo-European language spoken by the core Yuezhi’.
[2]
However, ’By the time Kajula Kadphrises ... established the Kingdom of the Kushans in Bactria, the Kushans had adopted Bactrian as their spoken language".
[3]
[1]: (Hill 2009, 312) John E. Hill. 2009. Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. An Annotated Translation of the Chronicle on the ’Western Regions’ from the Hou Hanshu. Charleston, SC: BookSurge Publishing. [2]: (Benjamin 2003) C. Benjamin. 2003. ’The Yuezhi Migration and Sogdia’, in Ēran ud Anērān: Studies Presented to Boris Ilich Marshak on the Occasion of His 70th Birthday, edited by Matteo Compareti, Paola Raffeta and Gianroberto Scarcia. Transoxiana Webfestschrift Series I, published online at http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/. [3]: (Samad 2011, 88) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing. |
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|
"The people whose material culture is studied here did not yet, as far as we know, use the Eastern Zhou term Zhongguo, or “middle kingdoms,” nor is there any evidence that they considered themselves to have a common collective identity. Indeed, it is likely that many, if not most, of those within the area of what is now the People’s Republic of China did not speak any language ancestral to modern Chinese. In addition to archaic Chinese, there would have been speakers of other Sino-Tibetan languages, as well as Altaic, Austroasiatic, Hmong-Mien, Tai-Kadai, Austronesian, and perhaps even Indo-European languages."
[1]
[1]: (Campbell 2014, 13) |
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|
The demotic Egyptian language, spoken and written, was very important during the early part of the first Ptolemaic period (305-217 CE), a continuation of scribal practice from the Persian period. Very little Greek administrative texts survive until the reign of Ptolemy II. The general assumption is that this does not reflect accidence of survival but a time lag to establish Greek within the bureaucratic system. It took, thus, roughly 75 to 50 years (counting from either Alexander’s conquest or from 320bc) before the Greek language becomes dominant.
|
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|
The Hmong sub-groups spoke different languages: ’Miao, mountain-dwelling peoples of China, Vietnam, Laos, Burma, and Thailand, who speak languages of the Hmong-Mien (Miao-Yao) family.’
[1]
’The customs and histories of the four Miao groups are quite different, and they speak mutually unintelligible languages. Closest linguistically to the Hmong are the A-Hmao, but the two groups still cannot understand each others’ languages. Of all the Miao peoples, only the Hmong have migrated out of China.’
[1]
Xiangxi, Qiandong, and Chuanqiandian are among the major languages spoken by non-Chinese ’hill peoples’: ’According to Chinese language classification, the Miao languages belong to the Miao-Yao Branch of Sino-Tibetan. Officially, these languages are termed fangyin (dialects) although they are not mutually intelligible. There are at least three main languages, further divisible into distinct and separate sublanguages or dialects of varying degrees of closeness. The Miao languages are tonal. Xiangxi, spoken in western Hunan by close to one million speakers, is associated with the Red Miao. It is comprised of two sublanguages. The larger of the two has been taken as standard and given a romanization for school texts and other local publications. The Qiandong language of central and eastern Guizhou is associated with the Black Miao. It has three major subdivisions. The most widespread of the three has well over a million speakers, and is taken as the official standard. The others, with a half million speakers each, are regarded as dialects and, as of this writing, have no official recognition. The Chuanqiandian languages are spoken by White, Flowery, and Blue Miao. There are at least seven major subdivisions, each further divided into a number of local dialects. As of 1994, only Chuanqiandianci (White Miao) and Diandongbei (Hua Miao) are officially recognized. Both of these formerly used a phonetic script, introduced by missionaries at the turn of the century. The script has been supplanted by a government-introduced romanization. In addition there are some eight additional fangyin , with several thousand speakers each, which do not fit into any of the major categories. Most of the Miao in Hainan are Yao speakers, and some Miao elsewhere speak only Dong or Chinese.’
[2]
The pace of the Sinification process still needs to be determined in further detail. The sources imply that Chuanqiandian was spoken by the Flowery Hmong, but make no mention of A-Hmao or Big Flowery Hmong. We have therefore chosen to keep all there of these major Chinese languages in the code, awaiting expert feedback on the A-Hmao.
[1]: http://www.britannica.com/topic/Miao [2]: Diamond, Norma: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Miao |
||||||
|
Entry field has been edited to make it machine readable French; Langues d’Oïl; Occitan: 1000-1200 CE
[1]
During 11th and 12th centuries the population that lived south of the Loire spoke Occitan.
[2]
Celtic language still strong in Brittany, even among the aristocrats.
[3]
[1]: (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 112) [2]: (Nicolle and McBridge 1991, 3) [3]: (Nicolle and McBridge 2000, 6) |
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|
Entry field has been edited to make it machine readable French; Langues d’Oïl; Occitan: 1000-1200 CE
[1]
During 11th and 12th centuries the population that lived south of the Loire spoke Occitan.
[2]
Celtic language still strong in Brittany, even among the aristocrats.
[3]
[1]: (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 112) [2]: (Nicolle and McBridge 1991, 3) [3]: (Nicolle and McBridge 2000, 6) |
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|
-
|
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|
The Hmong sub-groups spoke different languages: ’Miao, mountain-dwelling peoples of China, Vietnam, Laos, Burma, and Thailand, who speak languages of the Hmong-Mien (Miao-Yao) family.’
[1]
’The customs and histories of the four Miao groups are quite different, and they speak mutually unintelligible languages. Closest linguistically to the Hmong are the A-Hmao, but the two groups still cannot understand each others’ languages. Of all the Miao peoples, only the Hmong have migrated out of China.’
[1]
Xiangxi, Qiandong, and Chuanqiandian are among the major languages spoken by non-Chinese ’hill peoples’: ’According to Chinese language classification, the Miao languages belong to the Miao-Yao Branch of Sino-Tibetan. Officially, these languages are termed fangyin (dialects) although they are not mutually intelligible. There are at least three main languages, further divisible into distinct and separate sublanguages or dialects of varying degrees of closeness. The Miao languages are tonal. Xiangxi, spoken in western Hunan by close to one million speakers, is associated with the Red Miao. It is comprised of two sublanguages. The larger of the two has been taken as standard and given a romanization for school texts and other local publications. The Qiandong language of central and eastern Guizhou is associated with the Black Miao. It has three major subdivisions. The most widespread of the three has well over a million speakers, and is taken as the official standard. The others, with a half million speakers each, are regarded as dialects and, as of this writing, have no official recognition. The Chuanqiandian languages are spoken by White, Flowery, and Blue Miao. There are at least seven major subdivisions, each further divided into a number of local dialects. As of 1994, only Chuanqiandianci (White Miao) and Diandongbei (Hua Miao) are officially recognized. Both of these formerly used a phonetic script, introduced by missionaries at the turn of the century. The script has been supplanted by a government-introduced romanization. In addition there are some eight additional fangyin , with several thousand speakers each, which do not fit into any of the major categories. Most of the Miao in Hainan are Yao speakers, and some Miao elsewhere speak only Dong or Chinese.’
[2]
The pace of the Sinification process still needs to be determined in further detail. The sources imply that Chuanqiandian was spoken by the Flowery Hmong, but make no mention of A-Hmao or Big Flowery Hmong. We have therefore chosen to keep all there of these major Chinese languages in the code, awaiting expert feedback on the A-Hmao.
[1]: http://www.britannica.com/topic/Miao [2]: Diamond, Norma: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Miao |
||||||
|
The Hmong sub-groups spoke different languages: ’Miao, mountain-dwelling peoples of China, Vietnam, Laos, Burma, and Thailand, who speak languages of the Hmong-Mien (Miao-Yao) family.’
[1]
’The customs and histories of the four Miao groups are quite different, and they speak mutually unintelligible languages. Closest linguistically to the Hmong are the A-Hmao, but the two groups still cannot understand each others’ languages. Of all the Miao peoples, only the Hmong have migrated out of China.’
[1]
Xiangxi, Qiandong, and Chuanqiandian are among the major languages spoken by non-Chinese ’hill peoples’: ’According to Chinese language classification, the Miao languages belong to the Miao-Yao Branch of Sino-Tibetan. Officially, these languages are termed fangyin (dialects) although they are not mutually intelligible. There are at least three main languages, further divisible into distinct and separate sublanguages or dialects of varying degrees of closeness. The Miao languages are tonal. Xiangxi, spoken in western Hunan by close to one million speakers, is associated with the Red Miao. It is comprised of two sublanguages. The larger of the two has been taken as standard and given a romanization for school texts and other local publications. The Qiandong language of central and eastern Guizhou is associated with the Black Miao. It has three major subdivisions. The most widespread of the three has well over a million speakers, and is taken as the official standard. The others, with a half million speakers each, are regarded as dialects and, as of this writing, have no official recognition. The Chuanqiandian languages are spoken by White, Flowery, and Blue Miao. There are at least seven major subdivisions, each further divided into a number of local dialects. As of 1994, only Chuanqiandianci (White Miao) and Diandongbei (Hua Miao) are officially recognized. Both of these formerly used a phonetic script, introduced by missionaries at the turn of the century. The script has been supplanted by a government-introduced romanization. In addition there are some eight additional fangyin , with several thousand speakers each, which do not fit into any of the major categories. Most of the Miao in Hainan are Yao speakers, and some Miao elsewhere speak only Dong or Chinese.’
[2]
The pace of the Sinification process still needs to be determined in further detail. The sources imply that Chuanqiandian was spoken by the Flowery Hmong, but make no mention of A-Hmao or Big Flowery Hmong. We have therefore chosen to keep all there of these major Chinese languages in the code, awaiting expert feedback on the A-Hmao.
[1]: http://www.britannica.com/topic/Miao [2]: Diamond, Norma: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Miao |
||||||
|
Native languages were spoken in the Habsburg empire as well including Quechua, Aymara, Mayan, Tagalog, and Nahautl.
[1]
[2]
[1]: (Alves, Abel. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. Email. April 2020) [2]: (Woods 2015. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WWSAZIWU) |
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The Shaur language is often referred to as ’Jivaro’ by scholars. ’The Jivaro language is named Šuor by those who use it and Aoka by the neighboring peoples. It is spoken by both men and women, the latter use no other dialect among themselves.’
[1]
There is some disagreement on the precise linguistic grouping of relevant languages: ’It is generally believed that the Jivaro speak languages belonging to the Jivaroan Family of languages, but most historical linguists find it difficult to assign Jivaroan dialects and languages with any certainty to any of the recognized major language families of South American Indians. Greenberg, as noted in Harner (1973) has suggested that Jivaro as well as several other languages belong to a broad "Andean Equatorial" family (Harner, 1973: 13). In addition some Jivaro also speak Quechua as well as Spanish.’
[2]
’Jívaro, South American Indian people living in the Montaña (the eastern slopes of the Andes), in Ecuador and Peru north of the Marañón River. They speak a language of the Jebero-Jivaroan group.’
[3]
[1]: Flornoy, Bertrand, and Margaret Coughlin 1938. “Contribution To The Study Of The Jivaro Or Suor Language”, 333 [2]: Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro [3]: http://www.britannica.com/topic/Jivaro |
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Kingdom contained 5 languages: "French, occitan (Provencal, Auvergnat, Gascon etc.), Basque, Breton and Flemish." French language, favoured in court and central government, spread gradually into the regions. "The jurists of the chancellery and high courts had worked essentially in French from the fourteenth century and this opened the way for the triumph of French as the literary language."
[1]
[1]: (Potter 1995, 6) |
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|
Sanskrit. Gupta-Vakataka period: "The literary products of the age were numerous and varied, and some of the great masterpieces of Sanskrit literature like the Sakuntala, the Raghuvamsa and the Mrichohhakatika were composed in our period."
[1]
[1]: (Majumbar and Altekar 1946, 6-7) Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra. Altekar, Anant Sadashiv. 1986. Vakataka - Gupta Age Circa 200-550 A.D. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. |
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The Shaur language is often referred to as ’Jivaro’ by scholars. ’The Jivaro language is named Šuor by those who use it and Aoka by the neighboring peoples. It is spoken by both men and women, the latter use no other dialect among themselves.’
[1]
There is some disagreement on the precise linguistic grouping of relevant languages: ’It is generally believed that the Jivaro speak languages belonging to the Jivaroan Family of languages, but most historical linguists find it difficult to assign Jivaroan dialects and languages with any certainty to any of the recognized major language families of South American Indians. Greenberg, as noted in Harner (1973) has suggested that Jivaro as well as several other languages belong to a broad "Andean Equatorial" family (Harner, 1973: 13). In addition some Jivaro also speak Quechua as well as Spanish.’
[2]
’Jívaro, South American Indian people living in the Montaña (the eastern slopes of the Andes), in Ecuador and Peru north of the Marañón River. They speak a language of the Jebero-Jivaroan group.’
[3]
[1]: Flornoy, Bertrand, and Margaret Coughlin 1938. “Contribution To The Study Of The Jivaro Or Suor Language”, 333 [2]: Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro [3]: http://www.britannica.com/topic/Jivaro |
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{Arabic; Kurdish; Persian} "The Ayyubids ruled a predominantly Arabic-speaking region, and many of their princes became very proficient in Arabic letters and in the religious sciences. However, we see many signs of a continuing connection with their homeland and with Iranian culture generally. Thus, it is clear that al-Malek al-ʿĀdel and his son al-Malek al-Moʿaẓẓam ʿĪsā (d. 624/1227) still spoke Kurdish or even New Persian."
[1]
|
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The demotic Egyptian language, spoken and written, was very important during the beginning of the period, a continuation of scribal practice from the Persian period. Very little Greek administrative texts survive until the reign of Ptolemy II. The general assumption is that this does not reflect accidence of survival but a time lag to establish Greek within the bureaucratic system. It took, thus, roughly 75 to 50 years (counting from either Alexander’s conquest or from 320bc) before the Greek language becomes dominant.
|
||||||
|
The demotic Egyptian language, spoken and written, was very important during the beginning of the period, a continuation of scribal practice from the Persian period. Very little Greek administrative texts survive until the reign of Ptolemy II. The general assumption is that this does not reflect accidence of survival but a time lag to establish Greek within the bureaucratic system. It took, thus, roughly 75 to 50 years (counting from either Alexander’s conquest or from 320bc) before the Greek language becomes dominant.
|
||||||
|
Native languages were spoken in the Habsburg empire as well including Quechua, Aymara, Mayan, Tagalog, and Nahautl.
[1]
[2]
[1]: (Alves, Abel. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. Email. April 2020) [2]: (Woods 2015. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WWSAZIWU) |
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-
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|
’The Ashanti and related Akyem, Anyi, Attie, Baule, Brong, Fanti and Guang speak languages of the Akan subdivision, Twi branch, of the Kwa subfamily of Niger-Congo linguistic stock.’
[1]
’The Akan are Twi-speaking people living between the Volta river and the Atlantic coast in southern and central Ghana and in southeastern Cote d’Ivoire. They include the Akwamu, the Akwampim (Akuapem), the Akyem (Akim), the Asen-Twifo, the Ashanti (Asante), the Fanti (Fante), the Kwahu, and the Wasa.’
[2]
[1]: White 2009 ’Pinpointing Sheets for the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample: Complete Edition’ World Cultures [2]: HRAF Cultural Summary for ’Akan’ Michelle Gilbert, Robert O. Lagacé, and Ian Skoggard |
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|
’The Ashanti and related Akyem, Anyi, Attie, Baule, Brong, Fanti and Guang speak languages of the Akan subdivision, Twi branch, of the Kwa subfamily of Niger-Congo linguistic stock.’
[1]
’The Akan are Twi-speaking people living between the Volta river and the Atlantic coast in southern and central Ghana and in southeastern Cote d’Ivoire. They include the Akwamu, the Akwampim (Akuapem), the Akyem (Akim), the Asen-Twifo, the Ashanti (Asante), the Fanti (Fante), the Kwahu, and the Wasa.’
[2]
[1]: White 2009 ’Pinpointing Sheets for the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample: Complete Edition’ World Cultures [2]: HRAF Cultural Summary for ’Akan’ Michelle Gilbert, Robert O. Lagacé, and Ian Skoggard |
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|
’The Ashanti and related Akyem, Anyi, Attie, Baule, Brong, Fanti and Guang speak languages of the Akan subdivision, Twi branch, of the Kwa subfamily of Niger-Congo linguistic stock.’
[1]
’The Akan are Twi-speaking people living between the Volta river and the Atlantic coast in southern and central Ghana and in southeastern Cote d’Ivoire. They include the Akwamu, the Akwampim (Akuapem), the Akyem (Akim), the Asen-Twifo, the Ashanti (Asante), the Fanti (Fante), the Kwahu, and the Wasa.’
[2]
[1]: White 2009 ’Pinpointing Sheets for the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample: Complete Edition’ World Cultures [2]: HRAF Cultural Summary for ’Akan’ Michelle Gilbert, Robert O. Lagacé, and Ian Skoggard |
||||||
|
’The Ashanti and related Akyem, Anyi, Attie, Baule, Brong, Fanti and Guang speak languages of the Akan subdivision, Twi branch, of the Kwa subfamily of Niger-Congo linguistic stock.’
[1]
’The Akan are Twi-speaking people living between the Volta river and the Atlantic coast in southern and central Ghana and in southeastern Cote d’Ivoire. They include the Akwamu, the Akwampim (Akuapem), the Akyem (Akim), the Asen-Twifo, the Ashanti (Asante), the Fanti (Fante), the Kwahu, and the Wasa.’
[2]
[1]: White 2009 ’Pinpointing Sheets for the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample: Complete Edition’ World Cultures [2]: HRAF Cultural Summary for ’Akan’ Michelle Gilbert, Robert O. Lagacé, and Ian Skoggard |
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Creek for local population and andalusian arabic for the Arabs.
|
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Creek for local population and andalusian arabic for the Arabs.
|
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Cretans spoke an unknown language recorded in documents written in Linear A. The use of Linear B script in the Knossian administration suggest that the elite segment of the polity was familiar with the archaic version of Greek.
[1]
[1]: Palaima, T. G. 2010. "Linear B," in Cline, E. H. (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean (ca. 3000-1000 BC), Oxford, 356-72. |
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|
Cretans spoke an unknown language recorded in documents written in Linear A. The use of Linear B script in the Knossian administration suggest that the elite segment of the polity was familiar with the archaic version of Greek.
[1]
[1]: Palaima, T. G. 2010. "Linear B," in Cline, E. H. (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean (ca. 3000-1000 BC), Oxford, 356-72. |
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|
The settlers probably came from the Marquesas, so they presumably spoke an old version of Marquesan. Since this became the modern Hawaiian language, it could also be called Old Hawaiian.
|
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’The Iban language is distinct from other Bornean languages, and though it shares a limited number of words with Malay, it is not a Malay dialect.’
[1]
’Dayak, also spelled Dyak, Dutch Dajak, the non-Muslim indigenous peoples of the island of Borneo, most of whom traditionally lived along the banks of the larger rivers. Their languages all belong to the Indonesian branch of the Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) language family. Dayak is a generic term that has no precise ethnic or tribal significance. Especially in Indonesian Borneo (Kalimantan), it is applied to any of the (non-Muslim) indigenous peoples of the interior of the island (as opposed to the largely Malay population of the coastal areas). In Malaysian Borneo (Sarawak and Sabah), it is used somewhat less extensively and is often understood locally to refer specifically to Iban (formerly called Sea Dayak) and Bidayuh (formerly called Land Dayak) peoples. [...] Although lines of demarcation are often difficult to establish, the most prominent of the numerous Dayak subgroups are the Kayan (in Kalimantan usually called Bahau) and Kenyah, primarily of southeastern Sarawak and eastern Kalimantan; the Ngaju of central and southern Kalimantan; the Bidayuh of southwestern Sarawak and western Kalimantan; and the Iban of Sarawak.’
[2]
[1]: Vinson H. Sutlive, Jr. and John Beierle: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iban [2]: http://www.britannica.com/topic/Dayak |
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|
’The Iban language is distinct from other Bornean languages, and though it shares a limited number of words with Malay, it is not a Malay dialect.’
[1]
’Dayak, also spelled Dyak, Dutch Dajak, the non-Muslim indigenous peoples of the island of Borneo, most of whom traditionally lived along the banks of the larger rivers. Their languages all belong to the Indonesian branch of the Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) language family. Dayak is a generic term that has no precise ethnic or tribal significance. Especially in Indonesian Borneo (Kalimantan), it is applied to any of the (non-Muslim) indigenous peoples of the interior of the island (as opposed to the largely Malay population of the coastal areas). In Malaysian Borneo (Sarawak and Sabah), it is used somewhat less extensively and is often understood locally to refer specifically to Iban (formerly called Sea Dayak) and Bidayuh (formerly called Land Dayak) peoples. [...] Although lines of demarcation are often difficult to establish, the most prominent of the numerous Dayak subgroups are the Kayan (in Kalimantan usually called Bahau) and Kenyah, primarily of southeastern Sarawak and eastern Kalimantan; the Ngaju of central and southern Kalimantan; the Bidayuh of southwestern Sarawak and western Kalimantan; and the Iban of Sarawak.’
[2]
[1]: Vinson H. Sutlive, Jr. and John Beierle: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iban [2]: http://www.britannica.com/topic/Dayak |
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Kediri = ’Indian Mulberry’ in Sanskrit. (EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: https://visitingjava.wordpress.com/2013/10/31/kediri-city-of-cigarette/ ) The translations of Hindu epic Ramayana and Mahabharata into old Javanese language took place during the era of Medang Kingdom and Kediri kingdom around 9th to 11th century. (EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: http://southofvoice.blogspot.co.uk/2011/11/javanese-people.html )
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Kediri = ’Indian Mulberry’ in Sanskrit. (EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: https://visitingjava.wordpress.com/2013/10/31/kediri-city-of-cigarette/ ) The translations of Hindu epic Ramayana and Mahabharata into old Javanese language took place during the era of Medang Kingdom and Kediri kingdom around 9th to 11th century. (EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: http://southofvoice.blogspot.co.uk/2011/11/javanese-people.html )
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Śailendra — Sanskrit for ‘Lord of the Mountain" (EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: http://www.borobudur.tv/history_2.htm ). The translations of Hindu epic Ramayana and Mahabharata into old Javanese language took place during the era of the Medang and Kediri Kingdoms. (EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: http://southofvoice.blogspot.co.uk/2011/11/javanese-people.html )
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Śailendra — Sanskrit for ‘Lord of the Mountain" (EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: http://www.borobudur.tv/history_2.htm ). The translations of Hindu epic Ramayana and Mahabharata into old Javanese language took place during the era of the Medang and Kediri Kingdoms. (EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: http://southofvoice.blogspot.co.uk/2011/11/javanese-people.html )
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Hebrew was mostly displaced by Aramaic in the aftermath of the Babylonian exile c. 582 BCE; however, both languages continued to be spoken in daily life, with Hebrew especially retaining religious importance even as Aramaic gained relatively greater importance as a vernacular. It had once been believed by scholars that Aramaic had replaced Hebrew altogether (outside of religious contexts), but newer archaeological evidence has shown that view to be mistaken.
[1]
Greek, meanwhile, was introduced by the Macedonian Empire and reinforced during the rule of the Ptolemies and the Seleucids, and was additionally important as a trade language.
[1]: Cf. Buth/Notley (2014). |
||||||
|
"Sumerian continued to be the language of scholarship but was no longer spoken; Akkadian, in contrast, was used for international communication from Anatolia to Elam."
[1]
[1]: (McIntosh 2005: 84) McIntosh, J. 2005. Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD. |
||||||
|
Hebrew was mostly displaced by Aramaic in the aftermath of the Babylonian exile c. 582 BCE; however, both languages continued to be spoken in daily life, with Hebrew especially retaining religious importance even as Aramaic gained relatively greater importance as a vernacular. It had once been believed by scholars that Aramaic had replaced Hebrew altogether (outside of religious contexts), but newer archaeological evidence has shown that view to be mistaken.
[1]
Greek, meanwhile, was introduced by the Macedonian Empire and reinforced during the rule of the Ptolemies and the Seleucids, and was additionally important as a trade language.
[1]: Cf. Buth/Notley (2014). |
||||||
|
Hebrew was mostly displaced by Aramaic in the aftermath of the Babylonian exile c. 582 BCE; however, both languages continued to be spoken in daily life, with Hebrew especially retaining religious importance even as Aramaic gained relatively greater importance as a vernacular. It had once been believed by scholars that Aramaic had replaced Hebrew altogether (outside of religious contexts), but newer archaeological evidence has shown that view to be mistaken.
[1]
Greek, meanwhile, was introduced by the Macedonian Empire and reinforced during the rule of the Ptolemies and the Seleucids, and was additionally important as a trade language.
[1]: Cf. Buth/Notley (2014). |
||||||
|
The Emprerors were patrons of all languages - Sanskrit, Telugu, Tamil and Kannada
[1]
. Kings of Vijayanagara were of four distinct ruling lineages. They differed in language and provenance, in their religious affiliations and even in where their capitals were
[2]
.
[1]: R.C. Majumdar, H.C. Raychaudhuri, Kalikinkar Datta, An Advanced History of India (1974), p. 371 [2]: Burton Stein, The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara (1990), p. 13 |
||||||
|
Persian (official language). Sanskrit was used by Hindus and local dialects were spoken by the general population The process of Hindus learning the Persian language for employment in state service caused an upsurge from below.
[1]
Urdu "a mixture of Arabic, Persian, Turkish and Hindu" was developing as a common language.
[2]
[1]: Siddiqi, I. H. (2012). Composite culture under the Sultanate of Delhi. Delhi : Primus Books, pp. 26. [2]: (Ahmed 2011, 105) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India. |
||||||
|
Persian (official language). Sanskrit was used by Hindus and local dialects were spoken by the general population The process of Hindus learning the Persian language for employment in state service caused an upsurge from below.
[1]
Urdu "a mixture of Arabic, Persian, Turkish and Hindu" was developing as a common language.
[2]
[1]: Siddiqi, I. H. (2012). Composite culture under the Sultanate of Delhi. Delhi : Primus Books, pp. 26. [2]: (Ahmed 2011, 105) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India. |
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|
The A’chik people refer to themselves as speaking the A’chik language, however many scholars use the term ‘Garo’. ‘The Garos living in the East and West Garo Hills districts of Meghalaya in northeastern India speak the Garo dialect. They are one of the best known matrilineal groups in India.’
[1]
‘Garo is the language of the Garo people. But due to the presence of divisions among them into sub-tribes, the language spoken by them are different from one another, from region to region. However, the educated Garos have maintained the language into one single dialect which they use in literature. The early Baptist Missionaries had translated Garo language in Roman script. This modified form of language used in literature is understood by all and is easier for communication among the different subtribes.’
[2]
[1]: Roy, Sankar Kumar: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Garo [2]: George, Mathew 1995. “Development Of Education In Garo Hills: Continuity And Change”, 188 |
||||||
|
The A’chik language is often referred to as ’Garo’ by scholars. ‘The Garos living in the East and West Garo Hills districts of Meghalaya in northeastern India speak the Garo dialect. They are one of the best known matrilineal groups in India.’
[1]
‘Garo is the language of the Garo people. But due to the presence of divisions among them into sub-tribes, the language spoken by them are different from one another, from region to region. However, the educated Garos have maintained the language into one single dialect which they use in literature. The early Baptist Missionaries had translated Garo language in Roman script. This modified form of language used in literature is understood by all and is easier for communication among the different subtribes.’
[2]
[1]: Roy, Sankar Kumar: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Garo [2]: George, Mathew 1995. “Development Of Education In Garo Hills: Continuity And Change”, 188 |
||||||
|
Prakrit and Sanskrit were official, court languages, while Kannada was probably the "colloquial" language
[1]
EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: http://seshat.info/File:Kadambamaps.nelson.png
[1]: Suryanatha Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka (1980), p. 40 |
||||||
|
Prakrit and Sanskrit were official, court languages, while Kannada was probably the "colloquial" language
[1]
EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: http://seshat.info/File:Kadambamaps.nelson.png
[1]: Suryanatha Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka (1980), p. 40 |
||||||
|
The administrative and most widely used language for governance was Prakrit. Following the conversion of King Ashoka to Buddhism, Sanskrit was of increasing importance. Greek and Aramaic translations of edicts also indicate a reliance on local languages. There was no common language to unify the entirety of India. This lack of a common language was somewhat mitigated by the use of two different written scripts, the Brahmi and the Kharoshthi. The regional dialects of prakrit and limited surviving examples makes estimates largely speculative.
[1]
[1]: Toynbee, Arnold Joseph, and David Churchill Somervell. A study of history: abridgement of volumes i-; by DC Somervell. Oxford University Press, 1948. p. 49 |
||||||
|
The administrative and most widely used language for governance was Prakrit. Following the conversion of King Ashoka to Buddhism, Sanskrit was of increasing importance. Greek and Aramaic translations of edicts also indicate a reliance on local languages. There was no common language to unify the entirety of India. This lack of a common language was somewhat mitigated by the use of two different written scripts, the Brahmi and the Kharoshthi. The regional dialects of prakrit and limited surviving examples makes estimates largely speculative.
[1]
[1]: Toynbee, Arnold Joseph, and David Churchill Somervell. A study of history: abridgement of volumes i-; by DC Somervell. Oxford University Press, 1948. p. 49 |
||||||
|
Persian was the official language of the empire, but Urdu became the language of the elite. Urdu uses an Arabic script derived from Persian.
[1]
[2]
[1]: A. Schimmel, The Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture, (2004) p. 259 [2]: Matthews, P. H. "Hindi-Urdu." In The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics. : Oxford University Press, 2007. |
||||||
|
Persian was the official language of the empire, but Urdu became the language of the elite. Urdu uses an Arabic script derived from Persian.
[1]
[2]
[1]: A. Schimmel, The Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture, (2004) p. 259 [2]: Matthews, P. H. "Hindi-Urdu." In The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics. : Oxford University Press, 2007. |
||||||
|
The Emprerors were patrons of all languages - Sanskrit, Telugu, Tamil and Kannada
[1]
. Kings of Vijayanagara were of four distinct ruling lineages. They differed in language and provenance, in their religious affiliations and even in where their capitals were
[2]
.
[1]: R.C. Majumdar, H.C. Raychaudhuri, Kalikinkar Datta, An Advanced History of India (1974), p. 371 [2]: Burton Stein, The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara (1990), p. 13 |
||||||
|
The Emprerors were patrons of all languages - Sanskrit, Telugu, Tamil and Kannada
[1]
. Kings of Vijayanagara were of four distinct ruling lineages. They differed in language and provenance, in their religious affiliations and even in where their capitals were
[2]
.
[1]: R.C. Majumdar, H.C. Raychaudhuri, Kalikinkar Datta, An Advanced History of India (1974), p. 371 [2]: Burton Stein, The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara (1990), p. 13 |
||||||
|
The Emprerors were patrons of all languages - Sanskrit, Telugu, Tamil and Kannada
[1]
. Kings of Vijayanagara were of four distinct ruling lineages. They differed in language and provenance, in their religious affiliations and even in where their capitals were
[2]
.
[1]: R.C. Majumdar, H.C. Raychaudhuri, Kalikinkar Datta, An Advanced History of India (1974), p. 371 [2]: Burton Stein, The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara (1990), p. 13 |
||||||
|
Regional languages included Aramaic, Armenian, Berber, Coptic, Georgian, Greek, Kurdish, Persian, Oghuz Turkic. However, Arabic became the language of trade and governance in a vast territory.
[1]
. In Egypt the adoption of Arabic as the language of local government took over 100 years. Initially almost all papyruses were written in Greek. 643 CE saw the first bilingual Greek-Arabic document and 719 the last. Earliest known Arabic only document is dated 709 CE. The last papyrus written in Greek was in 780 CE.
[2]
[1]: Lapidus, Ira A., History of Islamic Society 2nd edition(Cambridge, 2002), p. 44 [2]: (Raymond 2000, 23) |
||||||
|
[1]
"Until Sargon, records from Akkad had been written in Sumerian. During his reign, however, the cuneiform writing of the Sumerians was adapted to fit the Akkadian language, and the resulting records have revealed Akkadian as the oldest known Semitic language. Cuneiform spread with the empire and was adopted in other states, including the kingdom of Elam, located to the west of Akkad."
[2]
"Therewas no requirement that records be kept in a specific language; in Sumer they tended to be in Sumerian, though written in the new Akkadian script, whereas in Akkad, they tended to be in Akkadian. Sometimes both languages appeared in the same record, suggesting that the administration considered itself bilingual ..."
[3]
[1]: Roux 1998, 128 [2]: (Middleton 2015) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge. [3]: (Foster 2016, 20-21) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London. |
||||||
|
[1]
"Until Sargon, records from Akkad had been written in Sumerian. During his reign, however, the cuneiform writing of the Sumerians was adapted to fit the Akkadian language, and the resulting records have revealed Akkadian as the oldest known Semitic language. Cuneiform spread with the empire and was adopted in other states, including the kingdom of Elam, located to the west of Akkad."
[2]
"Therewas no requirement that records be kept in a specific language; in Sumer they tended to be in Sumerian, though written in the new Akkadian script, whereas in Akkad, they tended to be in Akkadian. Sometimes both languages appeared in the same record, suggesting that the administration considered itself bilingual ..."
[3]
[1]: Roux 1998, 128 [2]: (Middleton 2015) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge. [3]: (Foster 2016, 20-21) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London. |
||||||
|
’The Persians of the Achaemenid period spoke an early form of Persian - "Old Persian" - a member of the Indo-European language family’.
[1]
Aramaic used for imperial documents and diplomatic correspondence.
[2]
Elamite, Babylonian, Aramaic, hieroglyphic Egyotian, Greek all used in royal and provincial chancelleries. Old Persian cuneiform script, from Darius, also used as official language and this was used for ceremonial inscriptions.
[3]
[1]: (Kuhrt 2001, 98) Amelie Kuhrt. 2001. ’The Achaemenid Persian Empire (c. 550-c.330 BCE): Continuities, Adaptations, Transformations’, in Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History, edited by Susan Alcock, Terence D’Altroy, Kathleen D. Morrison and Carla M. Sinopoli, 93-123. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [2]: (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2011, [5]) [3]: (Shahbazi 2012, 135) Shahbazi, A Shapour. The Archaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 BCE) Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. |
||||||
|
Persian was the mothertongue, the first Buyid rulers were probably not fluent in Arabic, but Adud al-Daula was known as an Arabic poet.
[1]
[1]: Busse, H. 1975. Iran under the Būyids. In Frye, R. N. (ed.) The Cambridge History of Iran. Volume 4. The period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuq’s. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.286 |
||||||
|
Persian was the mothertongue, the first Buyid rulers were probably not fluent in Arabic, but Adud al-Daula was known as an Arabic poet.
[1]
[1]: Busse, H. 1975. Iran under the Būyids. In Frye, R. N. (ed.) The Cambridge History of Iran. Volume 4. The period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuq’s. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.286 |
||||||
|
’The Persians of the Achaemenid period spoke an early form of Persian - "Old Persian" - a member of the Indo-European language family’.
[1]
Aramaic used for imperial documents and diplomatic correspondence.
[2]
Elamite, Babylonian, Aramaic, hieroglyphic Egyotian, Greek all used in royal and provincial chancelleries. Old Persian cuneiform script, from Darius, also used as official language and this was used for ceremonial inscriptions.
[3]
[1]: (Kuhrt 2001, 98) Amelie Kuhrt. 2001. ’The Achaemenid Persian Empire (c. 550-c.330 BCE): Continuities, Adaptations, Transformations’, in Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History, edited by Susan Alcock, Terence D’Altroy, Kathleen D. Morrison and Carla M. Sinopoli, 93-123. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [2]: (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2011, [5]) [3]: (Shahbazi 2012, 135) Shahbazi, A Shapour. The Archaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 BCE) Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. |
||||||
|
’The Persians of the Achaemenid period spoke an early form of Persian - "Old Persian" - a member of the Indo-European language family’.
[1]
Aramaic used for imperial documents and diplomatic correspondence.
[2]
Elamite, Babylonian, Aramaic, hieroglyphic Egyotian, Greek all used in royal and provincial chancelleries. Old Persian cuneiform script, from Darius, also used as official language and this was used for ceremonial inscriptions.
[3]
[1]: (Kuhrt 2001, 98) Amelie Kuhrt. 2001. ’The Achaemenid Persian Empire (c. 550-c.330 BCE): Continuities, Adaptations, Transformations’, in Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History, edited by Susan Alcock, Terence D’Altroy, Kathleen D. Morrison and Carla M. Sinopoli, 93-123. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [2]: (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2011, [5]) [3]: (Shahbazi 2012, 135) Shahbazi, A Shapour. The Archaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 BCE) Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. |
||||||
|
’The Persians of the Achaemenid period spoke an early form of Persian - "Old Persian" - a member of the Indo-European language family’.
[1]
Aramaic used for imperial documents and diplomatic correspondence.
[2]
Elamite, Babylonian, Aramaic, hieroglyphic Egyotian, Greek all used in royal and provincial chancelleries. Old Persian cuneiform script, from Darius, also used as official language and this was used for ceremonial inscriptions.
[3]
[1]: (Kuhrt 2001, 98) Amelie Kuhrt. 2001. ’The Achaemenid Persian Empire (c. 550-c.330 BCE): Continuities, Adaptations, Transformations’, in Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History, edited by Susan Alcock, Terence D’Altroy, Kathleen D. Morrison and Carla M. Sinopoli, 93-123. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [2]: (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2011, [5]) [3]: (Shahbazi 2012, 135) Shahbazi, A Shapour. The Archaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 BCE) Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. |
||||||
|
’The Persians of the Achaemenid period spoke an early form of Persian - "Old Persian" - a member of the Indo-European language family’.
[1]
Aramaic used for imperial documents and diplomatic correspondence.
[2]
Elamite, Babylonian, Aramaic, hieroglyphic Egyotian, Greek all used in royal and provincial chancelleries. Old Persian cuneiform script, from Darius, also used as official language and this was used for ceremonial inscriptions.
[3]
[1]: (Kuhrt 2001, 98) Amelie Kuhrt. 2001. ’The Achaemenid Persian Empire (c. 550-c.330 BCE): Continuities, Adaptations, Transformations’, in Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History, edited by Susan Alcock, Terence D’Altroy, Kathleen D. Morrison and Carla M. Sinopoli, 93-123. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [2]: (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2011, [5]) [3]: (Shahbazi 2012, 135) Shahbazi, A Shapour. The Archaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 BCE) Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. |
||||||
|
[1]
After mid-14th BCE: "The official language (also for royal inscriptions) was once again Elamite, and not Babylonian, as it had been before the dark age."
[2]
"The Elamite written language was used as the official language in the bureaucracy for a long time, rivaling the Sumerian and Akkadian languages even over a thousand years later, during the Old Persian Empire of the Achaemenids."
[3]
[1]: Carter, E. and Stolpher, M.W. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. London: University of California Publication. p.37 [2]: (Leverani 2014, 376) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. [3]: (Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. |
||||||
|
"Until Sargon, records from Akkad had been written in Sumerian. During his reign, however, the cuneiform writing of the Sumerians was adapted to fit the Akkadian language, and the resulting records have revealed Akkadian as the oldest known Semitic language. Cuneiform spread with the empire and was adopted in other states, including the kingdom of Elam, located to the west of Akkad."
[1]
Susa III texts c3000 BCE not related to Old Elamite inscriptions c2300 BCE. "simply indefensible to claim that Malyan was the site at which the Susa III writing system originated." It was a system derived from proto-cuneiform Susa II / Uruk IV.
[2]
"The fact that a number of the objects attributable to Puzur-Inshushinak were inscribed in Elamite as well as Akkadian suggests that, if he didn’t come from the highlands, then Puzur-Inshushinak was at pains to integrate both the highland and lowland regions to which he laid claim."
[3]
[1]: (Middleton 2015) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge. [2]: (Potts 2016, 71) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. [3]: (Potts 2016, 114) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. |
||||||
|
"Until Sargon, records from Akkad had been written in Sumerian. During his reign, however, the cuneiform writing of the Sumerians was adapted to fit the Akkadian language, and the resulting records have revealed Akkadian as the oldest known Semitic language. Cuneiform spread with the empire and was adopted in other states, including the kingdom of Elam, located to the west of Akkad."
[1]
Susa III texts c3000 BCE not related to Old Elamite inscriptions c2300 BCE. "simply indefensible to claim that Malyan was the site at which the Susa III writing system originated." It was a system derived from proto-cuneiform Susa II / Uruk IV.
[2]
"The fact that a number of the objects attributable to Puzur-Inshushinak were inscribed in Elamite as well as Akkadian suggests that, if he didn’t come from the highlands, then Puzur-Inshushinak was at pains to integrate both the highland and lowland regions to which he laid claim."
[3]
[1]: (Middleton 2015) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge. [2]: (Potts 2016, 71) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. [3]: (Potts 2016, 114) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. |
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|
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-
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|
"Alexander had apparently hellenized Susa to the extent that the language of administration was Greek, the form of city-state government was Greek, and even the ethnic composition of the area was partially Greek."
[1]
[1]: (Wenke 1981, 306) Wenke, Robert J. 1981. Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 101. No. 3. Jul-Sep. American Oriental Society. pp. 303-315. http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592 |
||||||
|
The original Ilkhans were Mongols and therefore spoke Mongolian. Manuscripts were written in Persian and Arabic.
[1]
[1]: Stefano Carboni, ’IL-KHANIDS iii. Book Illustration’ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-iii-book-illustration |
||||||
|
The original Ilkhans were Mongols and therefore spoke Mongolian. Manuscripts were written in Persian and Arabic.
[1]
[1]: Stefano Carboni, ’IL-KHANIDS iii. Book Illustration’ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-iii-book-illustration |
||||||
|
[1]
After sources reappear mid-14th BCE (after this period): "The official language (also for royal inscriptions) was once again Elamite, and not Babylonian, as it had been before the dark age."
[2]
"The Elamite written language was used as the official language in the bureaucracy for a long time, rivaling the Sumerian and Akkadian languages even over a thousand years later, during the Old Persian Empire of the Achaemenids."
[3]
[1]: Carter, E. and Stolpher, M.W. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. London: University of California Publication. p.37 [2]: (Leverani 2014, 376) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. [3]: (Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. |
||||||
|
[1]
After sources reappear mid-14th BCE (after this period): "The official language (also for royal inscriptions) was once again Elamite, and not Babylonian, as it had been before the dark age."
[2]
"The Elamite written language was used as the official language in the bureaucracy for a long time, rivaling the Sumerian and Akkadian languages even over a thousand years later, during the Old Persian Empire of the Achaemenids."
[3]
[1]: Carter, E. and Stolpher, M.W. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. London: University of California Publication. p.37 [2]: (Leverani 2014, 376) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. [3]: (Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. |
||||||
|
[1]
After mid-14th BCE: "The official language (also for royal inscriptions) was once again Elamite, and not Babylonian, as it had been before the dark age."
[2]
"The Elamite written language was used as the official language in the bureaucracy for a long time, rivaling the Sumerian and Akkadian languages even over a thousand years later, during the Old Persian Empire of the Achaemenids."
[3]
[1]: Carter, E. and Stolpher, M.W. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. London: University of California Publication. p.37 [2]: (Leverani 2014, 376) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. [3]: (Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. |
||||||
|
Mongolian the spoken, and later written, language of the Mongols. The extent of the empire meant a range of other languages were in use, including within administrative structures.
[1]
[1]: Morgan, David. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA ; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007. p.5, pp.11-14, pp.96-97. |
||||||
|
[1]
After mid-14th BCE: "The official language (also for royal inscriptions) was once again Elamite, and not Babylonian, as it had been before the dark age."
[2]
"The Elamite written language was used as the official language in the bureaucracy for a long time, rivaling the Sumerian and Akkadian languages even over a thousand years later, during the Old Persian Empire of the Achaemenids."
[3]
[1]: Carter, E. and Stolpher, M.W. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. London: University of California Publication. p.37 [2]: (Leverani 2014, 376) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. [3]: (Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. |
||||||
|
[1]
After mid-14th BCE: "The official language (also for royal inscriptions) was once again Elamite, and not Babylonian, as it had been before the dark age."
[2]
"The Elamite written language was used as the official language in the bureaucracy for a long time, rivaling the Sumerian and Akkadian languages even over a thousand years later, during the Old Persian Empire of the Achaemenids."
[3]
[1]: Carter, E. and Stolpher, M.W. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. London: University of California Publication. p.37 [2]: (Leverani 2014, 376) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. [3]: (Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. |
||||||
|
From the re-emergence of the Elamite Kingdom the Susian plane was occupied by people speaking a number of native languages.
[1]
In later periods the written Elamite shows close links with what would become the Persian language.
[2]
"The Elamite written language was used as the official language in the bureaucracy for a long time, rivaling the Sumerian and Akkadian languages even over a thousand years later, during the Old Persian Empire of the Achaemenids."
[3]
[1]: Stolpher, M.W. 2008. Elamite. In Woodard, R. D.(ed.) The Ancient Languages of Mesopotamia, Egypt and Aksum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.49-50 [2]: Potts, D.T. 1999. The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 259 [3]: (Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. |
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-
|
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|
From the re-emergence of the Elamite Kingdom the Susian plane was occupied by people speaking a number of native languages.
[1]
In later periods the written Elamite shows close links with what would become the Persian language.
[2]
"The Elamite written language was used as the official language in the bureaucracy for a long time, rivaling the Sumerian and Akkadian languages even over a thousand years later, during the Old Persian Empire of the Achaemenids."
[3]
[1]: Stolpher, M.W. 2008. Elamite. In Woodard, R. D.(ed.) The Ancient Languages of Mesopotamia, Egypt and Aksum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.49-50 [2]: Potts, D.T. 1999. The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 259 [3]: (Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. |
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"After the introduction of Old Persian cuneiform under the Achaemenians, a related form of the same language (a Middle Persian language written in a simplified form of the Aramaic consonantal alphabet) continued as the vehicle of administration under the Parthians."
[1]
Parthian. Aramaic and Greek also in use.
[2]
Pahlavi was the official language of the Parthians, which is "Persian written in Aramaic characters."
[3]
"Greek served as their official language."
[4]
"Although we know little of Parthian administrative practice we may assume it provided the basis for the Sasanian administration that followed it in a closely related form of Middle Persian, and in a related script, in the 3rd century AD."
[1]
[1]: (Spooner and Hanaway 2012, 12) Spooner, Brian. Hanaway, William L. in Spooner, Brian. Hanaway, William L eds. 2012. Literacy in the Persianate World: Writing and the Social Order. University of Pennsylvania Press. [2]: Josef Wiesehöfer, ’Parthia, Parthian empire’ in The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization eds. Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth; Ted Kaizer, ‘The Parthian and Early Sasanian Empires c.247 BC - AD 300’, in Thomas Harrison (ed.), The Great Empires of the Ancient World (London: Thames & Hudson, 2009),p.180. [3]: (Debevoise 1938, xxvi, 27) Debevoise, Neilson C. 1938. A Political History of Parthia. University of Chicago Press Chicago. https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/political_history_parthia.pdf [4]: (Neusner 2008, 18) Neusner, Jacob. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf & Stock. Eugene. |
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|
"After the introduction of Old Persian cuneiform under the Achaemenians, a related form of the same language (a Middle Persian language written in a simplified form of the Aramaic consonantal alphabet) continued as the vehicle of administration under the Parthians."
[1]
Parthian. Aramaic and Greek also in use.
[2]
Pahlavi was the official language of the Parthians, which is "Persian written in Aramaic characters."
[3]
"Greek served as their official language."
[4]
"Although we know little of Parthian administrative practice we may assume it provided the basis for the Sasanian administration that followed it in a closely related form of Middle Persian, and in a related script, in the 3rd century AD."
[1]
[1]: (Spooner and Hanaway 2012, 12) Spooner, Brian. Hanaway, William L. in Spooner, Brian. Hanaway, William L eds. 2012. Literacy in the Persianate World: Writing and the Social Order. University of Pennsylvania Press. [2]: Josef Wiesehöfer, ’Parthia, Parthian empire’ in The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization eds. Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth; Ted Kaizer, ‘The Parthian and Early Sasanian Empires c.247 BC - AD 300’, in Thomas Harrison (ed.), The Great Empires of the Ancient World (London: Thames & Hudson, 2009),p.180. [3]: (Debevoise 1938, xxvi, 27) Debevoise, Neilson C. 1938. A Political History of Parthia. University of Chicago Press Chicago. https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/political_history_parthia.pdf [4]: (Neusner 2008, 18) Neusner, Jacob. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf & Stock. Eugene. |
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|
"After the introduction of Old Persian cuneiform under the Achaemenians, a related form of the same language (a Middle Persian language written in a simplified form of the Aramaic consonantal alphabet) continued as the vehicle of administration under the Parthians."
[1]
Parthian. Aramaic and Greek also in use.
[2]
Pahlavi was the official language of the Parthians, which is "Persian written in Aramaic characters."
[3]
"Greek served as their official language."
[4]
"Although we know little of Parthian administrative practice we may assume it provided the basis for the Sasanian administration that followed it in a closely related form of Middle Persian, and in a related script, in the 3rd century AD."
[1]
[1]: (Spooner and Hanaway 2012, 12) Spooner, Brian. Hanaway, William L. in Spooner, Brian. Hanaway, William L eds. 2012. Literacy in the Persianate World: Writing and the Social Order. University of Pennsylvania Press. [2]: Josef Wiesehöfer, ’Parthia, Parthian empire’ in The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization eds. Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth; Ted Kaizer, ‘The Parthian and Early Sasanian Empires c.247 BC - AD 300’, in Thomas Harrison (ed.), The Great Empires of the Ancient World (London: Thames & Hudson, 2009),p.180. [3]: (Debevoise 1938, xxvi, 27) Debevoise, Neilson C. 1938. A Political History of Parthia. University of Chicago Press Chicago. https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/political_history_parthia.pdf [4]: (Neusner 2008, 18) Neusner, Jacob. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf & Stock. Eugene. |
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|
"After the introduction of Old Persian cuneiform under the Achaemenians, a related form of the same language (a Middle Persian language written in a simplified form of the Aramaic consonantal alphabet) continued as the vehicle of administration under the Parthians."
[1]
Parthian. Aramaic and Greek also in use.
[2]
Pahlavi was the official language of the Parthians, which is "Persian written in Aramaic characters."
[3]
"Greek served as their official language."
[4]
"Although we know little of Parthian administrative practice we may assume it provided the basis for the Sasanian administration that followed it in a closely related form of Middle Persian, and in a related script, in the 3rd century AD."
[1]
[1]: (Spooner and Hanaway 2012, 12) Spooner, Brian. Hanaway, William L. in Spooner, Brian. Hanaway, William L eds. 2012. Literacy in the Persianate World: Writing and the Social Order. University of Pennsylvania Press. [2]: Josef Wiesehöfer, ’Parthia, Parthian empire’ in The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization eds. Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth; Ted Kaizer, ‘The Parthian and Early Sasanian Empires c.247 BC - AD 300’, in Thomas Harrison (ed.), The Great Empires of the Ancient World (London: Thames & Hudson, 2009),p.180. [3]: (Debevoise 1938, xxvi, 27) Debevoise, Neilson C. 1938. A Political History of Parthia. University of Chicago Press Chicago. https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/political_history_parthia.pdf [4]: (Neusner 2008, 18) Neusner, Jacob. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf & Stock. Eugene. |
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Persian used in literature and inscription on coins. Initially Arabic was used on coins.
[1]
Turkic was used by some at court. "Government officials and their servants, merchants, artisans and their apprentices, professors and students, all spoke Persian. Business and preaching were usually done in Persian. "
[2]
"Qizilbash tribal elements and the early shahs especially were more comfortable in dialects of Turkish, native Iranians (Tajiks) spoke Persian and the primary language of the established faith was Arabic."
[3]
[1]: Rudi Matthee ‘SAFAVID DYNASTY’ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids. [2]: Masashi Haneda and Rudi Matthee, ’ISFAHAN vii. SAFAVID PERIOD’ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/isfahan-vii-safavid-period. [3]: (Newman 2009) Newman, Andrew J. 2009. Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire. I.B. Tauris. New York. |
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Latin remained the sole language of administration, diplomacy, liturgy, and culture throughout the period. The population of the Patrimony would have spoken regional dialects, mostly within the Romance language group.
[1]
These dialects would in some places have been influenced by Greek; the Lombard language had disappeared by about 700 CE.
[2]
[1]: Varvaro, 197-98. [2]: Wickham (2009), 68 |
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|
Persian used in literature and inscription on coins. Initially Arabic was used on coins.
[1]
Turkic was used by some at court. "Government officials and their servants, merchants, artisans and their apprentices, professors and students, all spoke Persian. Business and preaching were usually done in Persian. "
[2]
"Qizilbash tribal elements and the early shahs especially were more comfortable in dialects of Turkish, native Iranians (Tajiks) spoke Persian and the primary language of the established faith was Arabic."
[3]
[1]: Rudi Matthee ‘SAFAVID DYNASTY’ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids. [2]: Masashi Haneda and Rudi Matthee, ’ISFAHAN vii. SAFAVID PERIOD’ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/isfahan-vii-safavid-period. [3]: (Newman 2009) Newman, Andrew J. 2009. Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire. I.B. Tauris. New York. |
||||||
|
Persian used in literature and inscription on coins. Initially Arabic was used on coins.
[1]
Turkic was used by some at court. "Government officials and their servants, merchants, artisans and their apprentices, professors and students, all spoke Persian. Business and preaching were usually done in Persian. "
[2]
"Qizilbash tribal elements and the early shahs especially were more comfortable in dialects of Turkish, native Iranians (Tajiks) spoke Persian and the primary language of the established faith was Arabic."
[3]
[1]: Rudi Matthee ‘SAFAVID DYNASTY’ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids. [2]: Masashi Haneda and Rudi Matthee, ’ISFAHAN vii. SAFAVID PERIOD’ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/isfahan-vii-safavid-period. [3]: (Newman 2009) Newman, Andrew J. 2009. Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire. I.B. Tauris. New York. |
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|
"The most widespread languages during the Sasanian era were Middle Persian (or Pahlavi), Parthian, Sogdian, Khwarizmian, Khotanese Saka and Bactrian; various texts in these languages are extant."
[1]
In Iraq: "Parsi-speaking Zoroastrians ruled Iraq, but the local populations were Aramaic-speaking Nestorians and Jews"
[2]
"Although we know little of Parthian administrative practice we may assume it provided the basis for the Sasanian administration that followed it in a closely related form of Middle Persian, and in a related script, in the 3rd century AD."
[3]
[1]: (Tafazzoli 1996, 91) Tafazzoli, A. and Khromov, A. L. Sasanian Iran: Intellectual Life. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.82-105. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf [2]: (Lapidus 2012, 16) Lapidus, I M. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. [3]: (Spooner and Hanaway 2012, 12) Spooner, Brian. Hanaway, William L. in Spooner, Brian. Hanaway, William L eds. 2012. Literacy in the Persianate World: Writing and the Social Order. University of Pennsylvania Press. |
||||||
|
"The most widespread languages during the Sasanian era were Middle Persian (or Pahlavi), Parthian, Sogdian, Khwarizmian, Khotanese Saka and Bactrian; various texts in these languages are extant."
[1]
"Although we know little of Parthian administrative practice we may assume it provided the basis for the Sasanian administration that followed it in a closely related form of Middle Persian, and in a related script, in the 3rd century AD."
[2]
[1]: (Tafazzoli 1996, 91) Tafazzoli, A. and Khromov, A. L. Sasanian Iran: Intellectual Life. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.82-105. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf [2]: (Spooner and Hanaway 2012, 12) Spooner, Brian. Hanaway, William L. in Spooner, Brian. Hanaway, William L eds. 2012. Literacy in the Persianate World: Writing and the Social Order. University of Pennsylvania Press. |
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|
Greek was used for most written documents.
[1]
Local languages presumably continued to be spoken (as the Seleucids allowed local religious cults to continue practicing without imposed Hellenistic influences
[2]
, but the textual bias is towards Greek written documents.
[1]: Joannes, F. 2004. The Age of Empires: Mesopotamia in the first millennium BC. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p252. [2]: Kosmin, P. J. 2013. Alexander the Great and the Seleucids in Iran. In, Potts, D. T (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp.671-689. p685 |
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|
The Seljuqs were Turkish speakers. Persian was used by the administration and at court, Arabic was also used alongside it.
[1]
Persian bureaucracy, Turkish military.
[2]
Seljuks "were a leading family of the Oghuz peoples (rendered Ghuzz by Muslim writers), a Turkish-speaking tribal federation."
[3]
[1]: Daniela Meneghini ’SALJUQS v. SALJUQID LITERATURE’ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-v [2]: (Peacock 2015, 12) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. [3]: (Amitai 2006, 51) Amitai, Reuven. The Mamluk Institution, or One Thousand Years of Military Slavery in the Islamic World. Brown, Christopher Leslie. Morgan, Philip D. eds. 2006. Arming Slaves: From Classical To The Modern Age. Yale University Press. New Haven. |
||||||
|
The Seljuqs were Turkish speakers. Persian was used by the administration and at court, Arabic was also used alongside it.
[1]
Persian bureaucracy, Turkish military.
[2]
Seljuks "were a leading family of the Oghuz peoples (rendered Ghuzz by Muslim writers), a Turkish-speaking tribal federation."
[3]
[1]: Daniela Meneghini ’SALJUQS v. SALJUQID LITERATURE’ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-v [2]: (Peacock 2015, 12) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. [3]: (Amitai 2006, 51) Amitai, Reuven. The Mamluk Institution, or One Thousand Years of Military Slavery in the Islamic World. Brown, Christopher Leslie. Morgan, Philip D. eds. 2006. Arming Slaves: From Classical To The Modern Age. Yale University Press. New Haven. |
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|
Latin remained the language of administration, culture, and intellectual life during this period. Beginning in the fifteenth century, however, vernacular (proto-Italian) became increasingly accepted as a language for poetry, personal correspondence, and literature. By the end of the period, Italian was used frequently, although the official language of the Church and papal administration remained (and remains today) Latin.
[1]
[1]: On Latin and the rise of the vernacular, see Black in Najemy, 18-28 |
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-
|
||||||
|
The Seljuqs were Turkish speakers. Persian was used by the administration and at court, Arabic was also used alongside it.
[1]
Persian bureaucracy, Turkish military.
[2]
Seljuks "were a leading family of the Oghuz peoples (rendered Ghuzz by Muslim writers), a Turkish-speaking tribal federation."
[3]
[1]: Daniela Meneghini ’SALJUQS v. SALJUQID LITERATURE’ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-v [2]: (Peacock 2015, 12) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. [3]: (Amitai 2006, 51) Amitai, Reuven. The Mamluk Institution, or One Thousand Years of Military Slavery in the Islamic World. Brown, Christopher Leslie. Morgan, Philip D. eds. 2006. Arming Slaves: From Classical To The Modern Age. Yale University Press. New Haven. |
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|
[1]
"Until Sargon, records from Akkad had been written in Sumerian. During his reign, however, the cuneiform writing of the Sumerians was adapted to fit the Akkadian language, and the resulting records have revealed Akkadian as the oldest known Semitic language. Cuneiform spread with the empire and was adopted in other states, including the kingdom of Elam, located to the west of Akkad."
[2]
After mid-14th BCE: "The official language (also for royal inscriptions) was once again Elamite, and not Babylonian, as it had been before the dark age."
[3]
[1]: Hinz 1971, 660 [2]: (Middleton 2015) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge. [3]: (Leverani 2014, 376) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. |
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|
[1]
"Until Sargon, records from Akkad had been written in Sumerian. During his reign, however, the cuneiform writing of the Sumerians was adapted to fit the Akkadian language, and the resulting records have revealed Akkadian as the oldest known Semitic language. Cuneiform spread with the empire and was adopted in other states, including the kingdom of Elam, located to the west of Akkad."
[2]
After mid-14th BCE: "The official language (also for royal inscriptions) was once again Elamite, and not Babylonian, as it had been before the dark age."
[3]
[1]: Hinz 1971, 660 [2]: (Middleton 2015) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge. [3]: (Leverani 2014, 376) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. |
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|
[1]
"Until Sargon, records from Akkad had been written in Sumerian. During his reign, however, the cuneiform writing of the Sumerians was adapted to fit the Akkadian language, and the resulting records have revealed Akkadian as the oldest known Semitic language. Cuneiform spread with the empire and was adopted in other states, including the kingdom of Elam, located to the west of Akkad."
[2]
After mid-14th BCE: "The official language (also for royal inscriptions) was once again Elamite, and not Babylonian, as it had been before the dark age."
[3]
[1]: Hinz 1971, 660 [2]: (Middleton 2015) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge. [3]: (Leverani 2014, 376) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. |
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|
Indoeuropean, Italic. Latin and Greek, Italic languages within Italy itself, such as Etruscan or Oscan. Map of languages in pre-Roman Italy which shows the then distribution of Etruscan and Oscan languages
[1]
. Latin, Osco-Umbrian, Venetic, Messapian (Stearns 2001). "In Africa, Punic was widely spoken as well as Latin, and in a famous passage of The City of God Augustine reminds the reader that the imperious Roman capital had not only placed the yoke of dominion on defeated peoples; it had also imposed Latin as the official language (Augustine, The City of God, 19, 7)."
[2]
[2]: (Triana 2011, 86) Giusto Triana. 2011. 428 AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. Princeton University Press. |
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|
"Until Sargon, records from Akkad had been written in Sumerian. During his reign, however, the cuneiform writing of the Sumerians was adapted to fit the Akkadian language, and the resulting records have revealed Akkadian as the oldest known Semitic language. Cuneiform spread with the empire and was adopted in other states, including the kingdom of Elam, located to the west of Akkad."
[1]
After mid-14th BCE: "The official language (also for royal inscriptions) was once again Elamite, and not Babylonian, as it had been before the dark age."
[2]
"The Mari Age is undoubtedly a period for which it is possible to reconstruct the network of political relations of the ’Amorite’ world ... which can be considered as a cultural and linguistic continuum that spread from Syria to Elam with an unprecedented intensity and breadth of interaction. Akkadian became the preferred language for diplomatic relations and the administration of all the palaces of the area, even where the main spoken language was Hurrian or Amorite. Messengers and ambassadors had to travel extensively to deliver information, requests, gifts, and to prepare the route for merchants or troops."
[3]
[1]: (Middleton 2015) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge. [2]: (Leverani 2014, 376) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. [3]: (Leverani 2014, 229) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. |
||||||
|
"Until Sargon, records from Akkad had been written in Sumerian. During his reign, however, the cuneiform writing of the Sumerians was adapted to fit the Akkadian language, and the resulting records have revealed Akkadian as the oldest known Semitic language. Cuneiform spread with the empire and was adopted in other states, including the kingdom of Elam, located to the west of Akkad."
[1]
After mid-14th BCE: "The official language (also for royal inscriptions) was once again Elamite, and not Babylonian, as it had been before the dark age."
[2]
"The Mari Age is undoubtedly a period for which it is possible to reconstruct the network of political relations of the ’Amorite’ world ... which can be considered as a cultural and linguistic continuum that spread from Syria to Elam with an unprecedented intensity and breadth of interaction. Akkadian became the preferred language for diplomatic relations and the administration of all the palaces of the area, even where the main spoken language was Hurrian or Amorite. Messengers and ambassadors had to travel extensively to deliver information, requests, gifts, and to prepare the route for merchants or troops."
[3]
[1]: (Middleton 2015) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge. [2]: (Leverani 2014, 376) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. [3]: (Leverani 2014, 229) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. |
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|
-
|
||||||
|
"Until Sargon, records from Akkad had been written in Sumerian. During his reign, however, the cuneiform writing of the Sumerians was adapted to fit the Akkadian language, and the resulting records have revealed Akkadian as the oldest known Semitic language. Cuneiform spread with the empire and was adopted in other states, including the kingdom of Elam, located to the west of Akkad."
[1]
After mid-14th BCE: "The official language (also for royal inscriptions) was once again Elamite, and not Babylonian, as it had been before the dark age."
[2]
"The Mari Age is undoubtedly a period for which it is possible to reconstruct the network of political relations of the ’Amorite’ world ... which can be considered as a cultural and linguistic continuum that spread from Syria to Elam with an unprecedented intensity and breadth of interaction. Akkadian became the preferred language for diplomatic relations and the administration of all the palaces of the area, even where the main spoken language was Hurrian or Amorite. Messengers and ambassadors had to travel extensively to deliver information, requests, gifts, and to prepare the route for merchants or troops."
[3]
[1]: (Middleton 2015) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge. [2]: (Leverani 2014, 376) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. [3]: (Leverani 2014, 229) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. |
||||||
|
"Until Sargon, records from Akkad had been written in Sumerian. During his reign, however, the cuneiform writing of the Sumerians was adapted to fit the Akkadian language, and the resulting records have revealed Akkadian as the oldest known Semitic language. Cuneiform spread with the empire and was adopted in other states, including the kingdom of Elam, located to the west of Akkad."
[1]
After mid-14th BCE: "The official language (also for royal inscriptions) was once again Elamite, and not Babylonian, as it had been before the dark age."
[2]
"The Mari Age is undoubtedly a period for which it is possible to reconstruct the network of political relations of the ’Amorite’ world ... which can be considered as a cultural and linguistic continuum that spread from Syria to Elam with an unprecedented intensity and breadth of interaction. Akkadian became the preferred language for diplomatic relations and the administration of all the palaces of the area, even where the main spoken language was Hurrian or Amorite. Messengers and ambassadors had to travel extensively to deliver information, requests, gifts, and to prepare the route for merchants or troops."
[3]
[1]: (Middleton 2015) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge. [2]: (Leverani 2014, 376) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. [3]: (Leverani 2014, 229) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. |
||||||
|
"Until Sargon, records from Akkad had been written in Sumerian. During his reign, however, the cuneiform writing of the Sumerians was adapted to fit the Akkadian language, and the resulting records have revealed Akkadian as the oldest known Semitic language. Cuneiform spread with the empire and was adopted in other states, including the kingdom of Elam, located to the west of Akkad."
[1]
After mid-14th BCE: "The official language (also for royal inscriptions) was once again Elamite, and not Babylonian, as it had been before the dark age."
[2]
"The Mari Age is undoubtedly a period for which it is possible to reconstruct the network of political relations of the ’Amorite’ world ... which can be considered as a cultural and linguistic continuum that spread from Syria to Elam with an unprecedented intensity and breadth of interaction. Akkadian became the preferred language for diplomatic relations and the administration of all the palaces of the area, even where the main spoken language was Hurrian or Amorite. Messengers and ambassadors had to travel extensively to deliver information, requests, gifts, and to prepare the route for merchants or troops."
[3]
[1]: (Middleton 2015) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge. [2]: (Leverani 2014, 376) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. [3]: (Leverani 2014, 229) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. |
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|
Sumerian in neighbouring Mesopotamia: "Until Sargon, records from Akkad had been written in Sumerian."
[1]
Proto-Elamite descendent fro Uruk IV writing and developed different signs to the Sumerian of Jemdet Nasr. Susiana was a centre of Proto-Elamite culture along with Tall-i Malyan at Fars.
[2]
Susa III texts c3000 BCE not related to Old Elamite inscriptions c2300 BCE. "simply indefensible to claim that Malyan was the site at which the Susa III writing system originated." It was a system derived from proto-cuneiform Susa II / Uruk IV.
[3]
[1]: (Middleton 2015) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge. [2]: (Leverani 2014, 91) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. [3]: (Potts 2016, 71) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. |
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|
’At the time of settlement, the Icelanders spoke Old Norse (a Germanic language, in the large Indo-European group of languages), which was then common throughout Scandinavia. By the beginning of the twelfth century linguistic conservatism on the remote island society had introduced significant differences between Icelandic and its Scandinavian neighbors resulting in a distinct Icelandic. Prior to the conversion to Christianity in 1000 A.D., Old Norse was written in a runic alphabet. Runes had a restricted use and few runic inscriptions have survived from Iceland. With Christianity came the Roman alphabet and the expansion of written genres, which thrived in Iceland.’
[1]
’Old Icelandic, a dialect of Old Norse, is also used.’
[2]
[1]: Bolender, Douglas James and Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for Early Icelanders [2]: Árni Daniel Júlíusson and Axel Kristissen 2017, pers. comm. to E. Brandl and D. Mullins |
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|
Latin was the lingua franca of the western half of the empire, Greek of the eastern half. Within each half, some native languages survived in use for some time after Roman rule began (e.g., Egyptian and Aramaic in the east; various Celtic languages in parts of the west, and even Italic languages within Italy itself, such as Etruscan or Oscan). Language map showing East/West split:
[1]
. Map of languages in pre-Roman Italy which shows the then distribution of Etruscan and Oscan languages
[2]
"In Africa, Punic was widely spoken as well as Latin, and in a famous passage of The City of God Augustine reminds the reader that the imperious Roman capital had not only placed the yoke of dominion on defeated peoples; it had also imposed Latin as the official language (Augustine, The City of God, 19, 7)."
[3]
[1]: [1] (Bunson, 2009, 302-303) [3]: (Triana 2011, 86) Giusto Triana. 2011. 428 AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. Princeton University Press. |
||||||
|
Latin was the lingua franca of the western half of the empire, Greek of the eastern half. Within each half, some native languages survived in use for some time after Roman rule began (e.g., Egyptian and Aramaic in the east; various Celtic languages in parts of the west, and even Italic languages within Italy itself, such as Etruscan or Oscan). Language map showing East/West split:
[1]
. Map of languages in pre-Roman Italy which shows the then distribution of Etruscan and Oscan languages
[2]
"In Africa, Punic was widely spoken as well as Latin, and in a famous passage of The City of God Augustine reminds the reader that the imperious Roman capital had not only placed the yoke of dominion on defeated peoples; it had also imposed Latin as the official language (Augustine, The City of God, 19, 7)."
[3]
[1]: [1] (Bunson, 2009, 302-303) [3]: (Triana 2011, 86) Giusto Triana. 2011. 428 AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. Princeton University Press. |
||||||
|
Mongolian the spoken, and later written, language of the Mongols. The extent of the empire meant a range of other languages were in use, including within administrative structures.
[1]
[1]: Morgan, David. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA ; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007. p.5, pp.11-14, pp.96-97. |
||||||
|
Indoeuropean, Italic. Latin and Greek, Italic languages within Italy itself, such as Etruscan or Oscan. Map of languages in pre-Roman Italy which shows the then distribution of Etruscan and Oscan languages
[1]
. Latin, Osco-Umbrian, Venetic, Messapian (Stearns 2001). "In Africa, Punic was widely spoken as well as Latin, and in a famous passage of The City of God Augustine reminds the reader that the imperious Roman capital had not only placed the yoke of dominion on defeated peoples; it had also imposed Latin as the official language (Augustine, The City of God, 19, 7)."
[2]
[2]: (Triana 2011, 86) Giusto Triana. 2011. 428 AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. Princeton University Press. |
||||||
|
"Latin was the official language of the army (in official documents and orders) throughout the empire."
[1]
Latin was the lingua franca of the western half of the empire, Greek of the eastern half. Within each half, some native languages survived in use for some time after Roman rule began (e.g., Egyptian and Aramaic in the east; various Celtic languages in parts of the west, and even Italic languages within Italy itself, such as Etruscan or Oscan). Language map showing East/West split
[2]
. Map of languages in pre-Roman Italy which shows the then distribution of Etruscan and Oscan languages.
[3]
"In Africa, Punic was widely spoken as well as Latin, and in a famous passage of The City of God Augustine reminds the reader that the imperious Roman capital had not only placed the yoke of dominion on defeated peoples; it had also imposed Latin as the official language (Augustine, The City of God, 19, 7)."
[4]
[1]: (Pollard and Berry 2012, 36) [2]: [1] (Bunson, 2009, 302-303) [4]: (Triana 2011, 86) Giusto Triana. 2011. 428 AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. Princeton University Press. |
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-
|
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|
After the Arab conquest of Central Asia in the eighth century Arabic became the "new language for official communication and intellectual interchange".
[1]
However, the Karakhanids themselves formed a Turkic elite and likely to have used Turkic for the military.
[1]: (Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia’s Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton. |
||||||
|
After the Arab conquest of Central Asia in the eighth century Arabic became the "new language for official communication and intellectual interchange".
[1]
However, the Karakhanids themselves formed a Turkic elite and likely to have used Turkic for the military.
[1]: (Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia’s Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton. |
||||||
|
c582 CE: "The First Turkic Khaganate officially split into the Western and the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. In the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, the Sogdian language and script was used for chancellery purposes and inscriptions."
[1]
"The great Sogdian urban centers certainly remained Iranian-speaking, as did the countryside, but in certain remote regions the Türk element began to be ethnically important (as in the mountains of ’à‘, in Tukharistan and in Semire‘’e) even if it was culturally under Sogdian domination (the overstrikes on the coins of Tukharistan under Türk control were in Sogdian)."
[2]
[1]: (Hosszú 2012, 285) Hosszú, G. 2012. Heritage of Scribes: The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems. Rovas Foundation. [2]: (De la Vaissière 2005, 202) |
||||||
|
c582 CE: "The First Turkic Khaganate officially split into the Western and the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. In the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, the Sogdian language and script was used for chancellery purposes and inscriptions."
[1]
"The great Sogdian urban centers certainly remained Iranian-speaking, as did the countryside, but in certain remote regions the Türk element began to be ethnically important (as in the mountains of ’à‘, in Tukharistan and in Semire‘’e) even if it was culturally under Sogdian domination (the overstrikes on the coins of Tukharistan under Türk control were in Sogdian)."
[2]
[1]: (Hosszú 2012, 285) Hosszú, G. 2012. Heritage of Scribes: The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems. Rovas Foundation. [2]: (De la Vaissière 2005, 202) |
||||||
|
Mongolian the spoken, and later written, language of the Mongols. The extent of the empire meant a range of other languages were in use, including within administrative structures.
[1]
[1]: Morgan, David. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA ; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007. p.5, pp.11-14, pp.96-97. |
||||||
|
c582 CE: "The First Turkic Khaganate officially split into the Western and the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. In the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, the Sogdian language and script was used for chancellery purposes and inscriptions."
[1]
"The great Sogdian urban centers certainly remained Iranian-speaking, as did the countryside, but in certain remote regions the Türk element began to be ethnically important (as in the mountains of ’à‘, in Tukharistan and in Semire‘’e) even if it was culturally under Sogdian domination (the overstrikes on the coins of Tukharistan under Türk control were in Sogdian)."
[2]
[1]: (Hosszú 2012, 285) Hosszú, G. 2012. Heritage of Scribes: The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems. Rovas Foundation. [2]: (De la Vaissière 2005, 202) |
||||||
|
Khmer or Cambodian
[1]
’The Khmer language, which is distantly related to Vietnamese and many minority languages spoken in mainland Southeast Asia, belongs to the Mon-Khmer subset of the Austroasiatic family of languages. Over fifty distinct Austroasiatic languages are spoken across a wide swath of the Asian main- land, stretching from eastern India westward to Vietnam. Of these languages, only Khmer and Mon possess alphabets of their own.The Mons and the Khmers are also the only speakers of Austroasiatic languages to practice settled agri- culture. The earliest evidence of written Khmer comes from an inscription incised in southern Cambodia of the seventh century C.E., using an alphabet derived from southern India, which, in modified form, remains in use in contemporary Cambodia. The Thais adapted the alphabet for their own use in the thirteenth century C.E.’
[2]
’Linguistically and genetically an Austro-Asiatic group, the Mon belong to the Mon-Khmer ethnological unit. Archaeological remains have shown that they inhabited the area of the Mekong Delta and Tonle Sap regions of present- day Cambodia, northeast Thailand, and around the Gulf of Thailand from at least the beginning of the Common Era (C.E.). Perhaps they date even earlier, as evidence of an Austro-Asiatic group has been found in western Thailand in Kanchanaburi Province near the village of Ban Kao, dating from Neolithic times (10,000 B.C.E.). Archaeological remains indicate that a Mon civilization based on Theravada Buddhism was present in northeast Thailand up to around the early ninth century, when it was overtaken by the Khmers of Angkor expanding from cen- tral Cambodia at the beginning of the reign of Jayavarman II (770/790/802?-834 C.E.).’
[3]
[1]: (http://www.ethnologue.com/language/khm) [2]: (Chandler 2004, p. 729) [3]: (James 2004, p. 904) |
||||||
|
Khmer or Cambodian
[1]
’The Khmer language, which is distantly related to Vietnamese and many minority languages spoken in mainland Southeast Asia, belongs to the Mon-Khmer subset of the Austroasiatic family of languages. Over fifty distinct Austroasiatic languages are spoken across a wide swath of the Asian main- land, stretching from eastern India westward to Vietnam. Of these languages, only Khmer and Mon possess alphabets of their own.The Mons and the Khmers are also the only speakers of Austroasiatic languages to practice settled agri- culture. The earliest evidence of written Khmer comes from an inscription incised in southern Cambodia of the seventh century C.E., using an alphabet derived from southern India, which, in modified form, remains in use in contemporary Cambodia. The Thais adapted the alphabet for their own use in the thirteenth century C.E.’
[2]
’Linguistically and genetically an Austro-Asiatic group, the Mon belong to the Mon-Khmer ethnological unit. Archaeological remains have shown that they inhabited the area of the Mekong Delta and Tonle Sap regions of present- day Cambodia, northeast Thailand, and around the Gulf of Thailand from at least the beginning of the Common Era (C.E.). Perhaps they date even earlier, as evidence of an Austro-Asiatic group has been found in western Thailand in Kanchanaburi Province near the village of Ban Kao, dating from Neolithic times (10,000 B.C.E.). Archaeological remains indicate that a Mon civilization based on Theravada Buddhism was present in northeast Thailand up to around the early ninth century, when it was overtaken by the Khmers of Angkor expanding from cen- tral Cambodia at the beginning of the reign of Jayavarman II (770/790/802?-834 C.E.).’
[3]
’In northeast Thailand, for example, most Hinayana Buddhist stupas yielded to the standardized prasat structures of Angkorian Hinduism or Mahayana Buddhism.58 In 1200 people who spoke Khmer as their primary tongue probably formed a majority in the Cambodian plain, the Mekong basin as far north as That Phanom, much of the Chi and Mun river valleys, and the area im- mediately north and east of present-day Bangkok.59 But the lowlands also contained very substantial non-Khmer populations. Those parts of the Chaophraya basin subject to Angkor, for example, were dominated by Mon- and later by Tai-speakers, both of whom tended to be more attached to Hinayana Buddhism than to Hinduism. The basin also in- cluded people who in later times might be labeled Malay, Cham, or Karen.60 Angkor itself by 1297, according to Zhou Daguan, had Siamese (Tai) settlers as well as a large population of enslaved hill peoples, who were treated as a race apart. Each city and village in Cambodia, he added, had its own Khmer dialect.61’
[4]
’Here are the most salient traits of the Post-Classic: [...] Theravada Buddhism as the state religion, with Pali rather than Sanskrit as its language.’
[5]
’Here are the most salient traits of the Post-Classic: [...] Middle Khmer replaces Old Khmer as the language of the people and of the court.’
[5]
’Secondly, during the period in question and even long afterwards, the Cambodian and Thai courts were inextricably linked. Khmer intellectuals were steeped in Thai language and literature, and had come to think that the Ayutthaya chronicles were something to imitate; thus, they forced the Cambodian chronicles into a Thai model.’
[6]
[1]: (http://www.ethnologue.com/language/khm) [2]: (Chandler 2004, p. 729) [3]: (James 2004, p. 904) [4]: (Lieberman 2003, p. 231) [5]: (Coe 2003, p. 195) [6]: (Coe 2003, p. 199) |
||||||
|
Khmer or Cambodian
[1]
’The Khmer language, which is distantly related to Vietnamese and many minority languages spoken in mainland Southeast Asia, belongs to the Mon-Khmer subset of the Austroasiatic family of languages. Over fifty distinct Austroasiatic languages are spoken across a wide swath of the Asian main- land, stretching from eastern India westward to Vietnam. Of these languages, only Khmer and Mon possess alphabets of their own.The Mons and the Khmers are also the only speakers of Austroasiatic languages to practice settled agri- culture. The earliest evidence of written Khmer comes from an inscription incised in southern Cambodia of the seventh century C.E., using an alphabet derived from southern India, which, in modified form, remains in use in contemporary Cambodia. The Thais adapted the alphabet for their own use in the thirteenth century C.E.’
[2]
’Linguistically and genetically an Austro-Asiatic group, the Mon belong to the Mon-Khmer ethnological unit. Archaeological remains have shown that they inhabited the area of the Mekong Delta and Tonle Sap regions of present- day Cambodia, northeast Thailand, and around the Gulf of Thailand from at least the beginning of the Common Era (C.E.). Perhaps they date even earlier, as evidence of an Austro-Asiatic group has been found in western Thailand in Kanchanaburi Province near the village of Ban Kao, dating from Neolithic times (10,000 B.C.E.). Archaeological remains indicate that a Mon civilization based on Theravada Buddhism was present in northeast Thailand up to around the early ninth century, when it was overtaken by the Khmers of Angkor expanding from cen- tral Cambodia at the beginning of the reign of Jayavarman II (770/790/802?-834 C.E.).’
[3]
’In northeast Thailand, for example, most Hinayana Buddhist stupas yielded to the standardized prasat structures of Angkorian Hinduism or Mahayana Buddhism.58 In 1200 people who spoke Khmer as their primary tongue probably formed a majority in the Cambodian plain, the Mekong basin as far north as That Phanom, much of the Chi and Mun river valleys, and the area im- mediately north and east of present-day Bangkok.59 But the lowlands also contained very substantial non-Khmer populations. Those parts of the Chaophraya basin subject to Angkor, for example, were dominated by Mon- and later by Tai-speakers, both of whom tended to be more attached to Hinayana Buddhism than to Hinduism. The basin also in- cluded people who in later times might be labeled Malay, Cham, or Karen.60 Angkor itself by 1297, according to Zhou Daguan, had Siamese (Tai) settlers as well as a large population of enslaved hill peoples, who were treated as a race apart. Each city and village in Cambodia, he added, had its own Khmer dialect.61’
[4]
’Here are the most salient traits of the Post-Classic: [...] Theravada Buddhism as the state religion, with Pali rather than Sanskrit as its language.’
[5]
’Here are the most salient traits of the Post-Classic: [...] Middle Khmer replaces Old Khmer as the language of the people and of the court.’
[5]
’Secondly, during the period in question and even long afterwards, the Cambodian and Thai courts were inextricably linked. Khmer intellectuals were steeped in Thai language and literature, and had come to think that the Ayutthaya chronicles were something to imitate; thus, they forced the Cambodian chronicles into a Thai model.’
[6]
[1]: (http://www.ethnologue.com/language/khm) [2]: (Chandler 2004, p. 729) [3]: (James 2004, p. 904) [4]: (Lieberman 2003, p. 231) [5]: (Coe 2003, p. 195) [6]: (Coe 2003, p. 199) |
||||||
|
Mabbett and Chandler (1995) contend that the language and language family of the Funan is unknowable given the scarcity of data, but others, such as Miksic cite archaeological evidence to suggest that it is highly probable that the Funan spoke Mon-Kmer, an Austronesian language. ’It has often been supposed that the people of the Fu-nan were connected with the speakers of Austronesian languages of the islands rather than with the mainland Mon and Khmer; but when so little linguistic evidence survives, the pasting of such labels upon ancient communities is a speculative venture.’
[1]
’Some scholars interpret the Vocanh stele as a record of a Funan vassal in Khanh-hoa, central Vietnam. Unfortunately all inscriptions yet discovered in the territory and time period thought to belong to Funan are written in Sanskrit. We therefore cannot be sure whether the Funan rulers spoke an Austronesian or Austroasiatic language. In view of recent archaeological research, however, it seems likely that Funan was a Mon-Khmer polity. Pottery discovered at Oc Eo and Angkor Borei have more in common with later Cambodian ce- ramics than with those found in such probable Austronesian areas as Sahuynh.’
[2]
’In what is believed to have been Funan, Khmer and its related dialects seems the strongest candidate, but it is plausible that other languages, particularly Mon, were also spoken.’
[3]
’What language they spoke in everyday life we do not know. Although Funan was a literate, Indianised society, all trace of the books in what the Chinese described as impressive libraries have disappeared in the heat and humidity, and all stone inscriptions from before the seventh century are in Sanskrit.’
[4]
’Probably a form of the Mon-Khmer language family using the Sanskrit writing system’
[5]
’The actual origins of Funan are still un- clear, but its language seems to indicate membership in the Mon-Khmer branch of the Austro-Asiatic language family. The Funanese are thus related to both the Mons of present- day Myanmar and the Khmers of Cambodia.’
[6]
[1]: (Mabbett and Chandler 1995, p.66) [2]: (Miksin 2007, p. 123) [3]: (Jacques and Lafond 2007, p. 46) [4]: (Tully 2005, p. 9) [5]: (West 2009, p. 222) [6]: (West 2009, p. 223) |
||||||
|
-
|
||||||
|
Mabbett and Chandler (1995) contend that the language and language family of the Funan is unknowable given the scarcity of data, but others, such as Miksic cite archaeological evidence to suggest that it is highly probable that the Funan spoke Mon-Kmer, an Austronesian language. ’It has often been supposed that the people of the Fu-nan were connected with the speakers of Austronesian languages of the islands rather than with the mainland Mon and Khmer; but when so little linguistic evidence survives, the pasting of such labels upon ancient communities is a speculative venture.’
[1]
’Some scholars interpret the Vocanh stele as a record of a Funan vassal in Khanh-hoa, central Vietnam. Unfortunately all inscriptions yet discovered in the territory and time period thought to belong to Funan are written in Sanskrit. We therefore cannot be sure whether the Funan rulers spoke an Austronesian or Austroasiatic language. In view of recent archaeological research, however, it seems likely that Funan was a Mon-Khmer polity. Pottery discovered at Oc Eo and Angkor Borei have more in common with later Cambodian ce- ramics than with those found in such probable Austronesian areas as Sahuynh.’
[2]
’In what is believed to have been Funan, Khmer and its related dialects seems the strongest candidate, but it is plausible that other languages, particularly Mon, were also spoken.’
[3]
’What language they spoke in everyday life we do not know. Although Funan was a literate, Indianised society, all trace of the books in what the Chinese described as impressive libraries have disappeared in the heat and humidity, and all stone inscriptions from before the seventh century are in Sanskrit.’
[4]
’Probably a form of the Mon-Khmer language family using the Sanskrit writing system’
[5]
’The actual origins of Funan are still un- clear, but its language seems to indicate membership in the Mon-Khmer branch of the Austro-Asiatic language family. The Funanese are thus related to both the Mons of present- day Myanmar and the Khmers of Cambodia.’
[6]
[1]: (Mabbett and Chandler 1995, p.66) [2]: (Miksin 2007, p. 123) [3]: (Jacques and Lafond 2007, p. 46) [4]: (Tully 2005, p. 9) [5]: (West 2009, p. 222) [6]: (West 2009, p. 223) |
||||||
|
Mabbett and Chandler (1995) contend that the language and language family of the Funan is unknowable given the scarcity of data, but others, such as Miksic cite archaeological evidence to suggest that it is highly probable that the Funan spoke Mon-Kmer, an Austronesian language. ’It has often been supposed that the people of the Fu-nan were connected with the speakers of Austronesian languages of the islands rather than with the mainland Mon and Khmer; but when so little linguistic evidence survives, the pasting of such labels upon ancient communities is a speculative venture.’
[1]
’Some scholars interpret the Vocanh stele as a record of a Funan vassal in Khanh-hoa, central Vietnam. Unfortunately all inscriptions yet discovered in the territory and time period thought to belong to Funan are written in Sanskrit. We therefore cannot be sure whether the Funan rulers spoke an Austronesian or Austroasiatic language. In view of recent archaeological research, however, it seems likely that Funan was a Mon-Khmer polity. Pottery discovered at Oc Eo and Angkor Borei have more in common with later Cambodian ceramics than with those found in such probable Austronesian areas as Sahuynh.’
[2]
’In what is believed to have been Funan, Khmer and its related dialects seems the strongest candidate, but it is plausible that other languages, particularly Mon, were also spoken.’
[3]
’What language they spoke in everyday life we do not know. Although Funan was a literate, Indianised society, all trace of the books in what the Chinese described as impressive libraries have disappeared in the heat and humidity, and all stone inscriptions from before the seventh century are in Sanskrit.’
[4]
’Probably a form of the Mon-Khmer language family using the Sanskrit writing system’
[5]
’The actual origins of Funan are still un- clear, but its language seems to indicate membership in the Mon-Khmer branch of the Austro-Asiatic language family. The Funanese are thus related to both the Mons of present- day Myanmar and the Khmers of Cambodia.’
[6]
[1]: (Mabbett and Chandler 1995, p.66) [2]: (Miksin 2007, p. 123) [3]: (Jacques and Lafond 2007, p. 46) [4]: (Tully 2005, p. 9) [5]: (West 2009, p. 222) [6]: (West 2009, p. 223) |
||||||
|
Mabbett and Chandler (1995) contend that the language and language family of the Funan is unknowable given the scarcity of data, but others, such as Miksic cite archaeological evidence to suggest that it is highly probable that the Funan spoke Mon-Kmer, an Austronesian language. ’It has often been supposed that the people of the Fu-nan were connected with the speakers of Austronesian languages of the islands rather than with the mainland Mon and Khmer; but when so little linguistic evidence survives, the pasting of such labels upon ancient communities is a speculative venture.’
[1]
’Some scholars interpret the Vocanh stele as a record of a Funan vassal in Khanh-hoa, central Vietnam. Unfortunately all inscriptions yet discovered in the territory and time period thought to belong to Funan are written in Sanskrit. We therefore cannot be sure whether the Funan rulers spoke an Austronesian or Austroasiatic language. In view of recent archaeological research, however, it seems likely that Funan was a Mon-Khmer polity. Pottery discovered at Oc Eo and Angkor Borei have more in common with later Cambodian ceramics than with those found in such probable Austronesian areas as Sahuynh.’
[2]
’In what is believed to have been Funan, Khmer and its related dialects seems the strongest candidate, but it is plausible that other languages, particularly Mon, were also spoken.’
[3]
’What language they spoke in everyday life we do not know. Although Funan was a literate, Indianised society, all trace of the books in what the Chinese described as impressive libraries have disappeared in the heat and humidity, and all stone inscriptions from before the seventh century are in Sanskrit.’
[4]
’Probably a form of the Mon-Khmer language family using the Sanskrit writing system’
[5]
’The actual origins of Funan are still un- clear, but its language seems to indicate membership in the Mon-Khmer branch of the Austro-Asiatic language family. The Funanese are thus related to both the Mons of present- day Myanmar and the Khmers of Cambodia.’
[6]
[1]: (Mabbett and Chandler 1995, p.66) [2]: (Miksin 2007, p. 123) [3]: (Jacques and Lafond 2007, p. 46) [4]: (Tully 2005, p. 9) [5]: (West 2009, p. 222) [6]: (West 2009, p. 223) |
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|
Inferred from the name (Bambara and Bamana mean the same thing)
[1]
.
[1]: K.C. MacDonald, A Chacoun son Bambara, encore une fois: History, Archaeology and Bambara Origins, in F.G. Richard and K.C. MacDonald, Ethnic Ambiguity and the African Past: Materiality, History, and the Shaping of Cultural Identities (2014), pp. 119-144 |
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|
mid-14th century onwards? "Arabic became important both for the diffusion of religion and for communications and trade."
[1]
mid-14th century onwards? Arabic "was used for official correspondence in the Ghana Empire before the end of the twelfth century and in Mali in the mid-fourteenth century."
[1]
[1]: (Lapidus 2012, 592) |
||||||
|
Inferred from the fact that the Coulibaly belonged to the Bambara ethnic group
[1]
.
[1]: K.C. MacDonald, A Chacoun son Bambara, encore une fois: History, Archaeology and Bambara Origins, in F.G. Richard and K.C. MacDonald, Ethnic Ambiguity and the African Past: Materiality, History, and the Shaping of Cultural Identities (2014), pp. 119-144 |
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|
"As is clearly shown by the inscriptions commemorating the deeds of their great men, Türks and Uighurs spoke the same language, used the same runic-type script and lived within the same geographic boundaries. Were it not for their name, the Uighurs would be indistinguishable from the Türks."
[1]
"The Türks spoke a dialect of Old Turkish belonging to the Oghuz family, close to modern Uighur, Uzbek, Türkmen, and Turkish, somewhat more distant from the Qipchaq family of Kazakh and Tatar, and quite far from the Oghur family of Chuvash and Old Bulghar. Although many other tribes also spoke close or identical dialects, the Türks’ imperial prestige gave a single name to the whole family of dialects."
[2]
[1]: (Sinor 1998, 197) [2]: (Atwood 2004, 554) |
||||||
|
"The question may be asked whether all these groups spoke the same language. The Orkhon inscriptions, engraved in the mid eighth century, are certainly Turkic - we refer to their language as Old Turkic, but one may as well call it Türk - and there is no reason to believe that at least the bulk of those who were called Türk used a different language. For example, the Chiu T’ang shu clearly states that the languages spoken by respectively the Eastern and Western Turks are only "slightly different." There is, however, some evidence to show that the Turk state incorporated some non-Turkic peoples whose languages left traces in Turk proper names and even in the vocabulary of Turk."
[1]
"As witnessed by the Bugut inscription, the role of the Sogdians within the Turk state ensured a prominent status for their language. It is safe to assume that it was widely used in commerce and in other international contacts."
[2]
c582 CE: "The First Turkic Khaganate officially split into the Western and the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. In the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, the Sogdian language and script was used for chancellery purposes and inscriptions."
[3]
[1]: (Sinor 1990, 289-290) [2]: (Sinor 1990, 291) [3]: (Hosszú 2012, 285) Hosszú, G. 2012. Heritage of Scribes: The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems. Rovas Foundation. |
||||||
|
"The question may be asked whether all these groups spoke the same language. The Orkhon inscriptions, engraved in the mid eighth century, are certainly Turkic - we refer to their language as Old Turkic, but one may as well call it Türk - and there is no reason to believe that at least the bulk of those who were called Türk used a different language. For example, the Chiu T’ang shu clearly states that the languages spoken by respectively the Eastern and Western Turks are only "slightly different." There is, however, some evidence to show that the Turk state incorporated some non-Turkic peoples whose languages left traces in Turk proper names and even in the vocabulary of Turk."
[1]
"As witnessed by the Bugut inscription, the role of the Sogdians within the Turk state ensured a prominent status for their language. It is safe to assume that it was widely used in commerce and in other international contacts."
[2]
c582 CE: "The First Turkic Khaganate officially split into the Western and the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. In the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, the Sogdian language and script was used for chancellery purposes and inscriptions."
[3]
[1]: (Sinor 1990, 289-290) [2]: (Sinor 1990, 291) [3]: (Hosszú 2012, 285) Hosszú, G. 2012. Heritage of Scribes: The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems. Rovas Foundation. |
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|
Mongolian the spoken, and later written, language of the Mongols. The extent of the empire meant a range of other languages were in use, including within administrative structures.
[1]
[1]: Morgan, David. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA ; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007. p.5, pp.11-14, pp.96-97. |
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Mongolian the spoken, and later written, language of the Mongols. The extent of the empire meant a range of other languages were in use, including within administrative structures.
[1]
[1]: Morgan, David. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA ; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007. p.5, pp.11-14, pp.96-97. |
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|
Mongolian the spoken, and later written, language of the Mongols. The extent of the empire meant a range of other languages were in use, including within administrative structures.
[1]
[1]: Morgan, David. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA ; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007. p.5, pp.11-14, pp.96-97. |
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|
Mongolian the spoken, and later written, language of the Mongols. The extent of the empire meant a range of other languages were in use, including within administrative structures.
[1]
[1]: Morgan, David. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA ; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007. p.5, pp.11-14, pp.96-97. |
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Mongolic family: Mongolian, Kereid, Tatar (these were probably dialects). Turkic family: Naimans
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Mongolic family: Mongolian, Kereid, Tatar (these were probably dialects). Turkic family: Naimans
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Mongolic family: Mongolian, Kereid, Tatar (these were probably dialects). Turkic family: Naimans
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Mongolic family: Mongolian, Kereid, Tatar (these were probably dialects). Turkic family: Naimans
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"Since, as we shall see, the Turk state replaced that of the Juan-juan, it would be tempting - and probably correct - to assume that the Juan-juan language continued in use among the subjects of the newly formed Turk empire. Unfortunately we do not know what Juan-juan was like. In spite of repeated attempts to reconstruct them on the basis of Chinese transcriptions, Juan- juan proper names show no trace of being Turkic, nor can they consistently be explained from Mongol. It is probably safe to say that within the perimeter of the Juan-juan state a number of partly unrelated languages were in use, and that the Turks, together with the political power, inherited the linguistic status quo. Scattered but convincing data support such a hypothesis."
[1]
[1]: (Sinor 1990, 290-291) |
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"The Türks spoke a dialect of Old Turkish belonging to the Oghuz family, close to modern Uighur, Uzbek, Türkmen, and Turkish, somewhat more distant from the Qipchaq family of Kazakh and Tatar, and quite far from the Oghur family of Chuvash and Old Bulghar. Although many other tribes also spoke close or identical dialects, the Türks’ imperial prestige gave a single name to the whole family of dialects."
[1]
[1]: (Atwood 2004, 554) |
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-
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"The results of the last linguistic reconstructions show that, on the territory between Ordos and Syano-Altai at the end of the I millennium B.C.E. - in the early centuries of the I millenium C.E., the arch-Turkic language went around. However, the Hsiung-nu vocabulary “recorded by Chinese belonged, in most cases, to the ‘upper’ functional style of the language of appropriate social formations that, probably, has not become the foregoer of the Turkic languages but, as it is typical of such functional styles, dissipated together with the society in which is functioned” (Dybo 2007: 199, 201). In either case, it should be remembered that the Xiongnu were polyethnic and polylingual nomadic empire. According to the written sources, the Xiongnu aristocracy included the Chinese counsellors and military commanders (most familiar of them is warlord Li Ling). The racial and ethnic tolerance is confirmed by the newest archaeological and genetic data (Kim et al. 2010). If, according to data of the physical anthropology, the Xiongnu of the Central and West Mongolia are close to the cultures of the Turkic circle then the Xiongnu of the East Mongolia bear many similarities to the Xiongnu of East Baikal area and Xienpi (Tumen 2011: 370)."
[1]
[1]: (Kradin 2014, 108-109) |
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|
"The results of the last linguistic reconstructions show that, on the territory between Ordos and Syano-Altai at the end of the I millennium B.C.E. - in the early centuries of the I millenium C.E., the arch-Turkic language went around. However, the Hsiung-nu vocabulary “recorded by Chinese belonged, in most cases, to the ‘upper’ functional style of the language of appropriate social formations that, probably, has not become the foregoer of the Turkic languages but, as it is typical of such functional styles, dissipated together with the society in which is functioned” (Dybo 2007: 199, 201). In either case, it should be remembered that the Xiongnu were polyethnic and polylingual nomadic empire. According to the written sources, the Xiongnu aristocracy included the Chinese counsellors and military commanders (most familiar of them is warlord Li Ling). The racial and ethnic tolerance is confirmed by the newest archaeological and genetic data (Kim et al. 2010). If, according to data of the physical anthropology, the Xiongnu of the Central and West Mongolia are close to the cultures of the Turkic circle then the Xiongnu of the East Mongolia bear many similarities to the Xiongnu of East Baikal area and Xienpi (Tumen 2011: 370)."
[1]
[1]: (Kradin 2014, 108-109) |
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“…the iconography and hieroglyphic writing of Monte Albán I suggest that we are dealing with people who spoke an early version of Zapotec and practiced an early form of Zapotec religion.”
[1]
[1]: Marcus, J. and K. V. Flannery (1996). Zapotec civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley, Thames and Hudson London, p155 |
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“…the iconography and hieroglyphic writing of Monte Albán I suggest that we are dealing with people who spoke an early version of Zapotec and practiced an early form of Zapotec religion.”
[1]
[1]: Marcus, J. and K. V. Flannery (1996). Zapotec civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley, Thames and Hudson London, p155 |
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“…the iconography and hieroglyphic writing of Monte Albán I suggest that we are dealing with people who spoke an early version of Zapotec and practiced an early form of Zapotec religion.”
[1]
[1]: Marcus, J. and K. V. Flannery (1996). Zapotec civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley, Thames and Hudson London, p155 |
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The Icelandic variant became increasingly distinct from Old Norse: ’The Icelandic language had now assumed its distinctive traits. Originally it was identical with the Old Norse found in southwestern Norway in the districts from which the greater number of Icelandic colonists emigrated. This language has been preserved in Iceland with but little change even to the present. But in the thirteenth century some peculiarities developed which distinguished it slightly from the original mother tongue. The Old Norse e and o in final position were changed to i and u, and the digraphs [...] were no longer kept distinct, but were both represented by [...]. This change was completed about 1300. In the fourteenth century the connecting vowel u also appears in Icelandic before final syllabic r, as vetur for vetr, dagur for dagr. After 1350 Norse underwent a new development similar to that of English and other Germanic tongues, while Icelandic, by preserving the old inflectional forms and other peculiarities, henceforth remained a distinct language.’
[1]
The linguistic ’conservatism’ that enabled this development may have played a partial role in maintaining Icelandic autonomy: ’Another factor which was to be crucial for Iceland’s status in the long term was the development of the Nordic languages. During the period of the Old Commonwealth, the Icelanders regarded the dialects spoken in the Nordic countries as a single language, which they called Norse or Danish. But in the 14th and 15th centuries the other Nordic languages underwent considerable change, while the Icelanders’ language remained almost unaltered. Thus the Icelanders stopped calling their language Norse, and started to call it Icelandic. Their linguistic isolation in turn served to help the Icelanders keep foreign law and foreign officials out of the country. Iceland thus retained a remarkable degree of autonomy within the realm.’
[2]
[1]: Gjerset, Knut [1924]. "History of Iceland", 256 [2]: Karlsson, Gunnar 2000. "A Brief History of Iceland", 19 |
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"Linguists have recently arrived at the view that the Incas may have adopted Quechua for imperial rule precisely because it was already widespread. Before then, the Incas spoke one or two other languages, most likely Aymara and possibly Puquina."
[1]
This refers to the pre-imperial Inca or Killke. The language used in other polities, such as the Pinagua of the Lucre Basin, seems to be undocumented.
[1]: (D’Altroy 2014, 58) |
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"Linguists have recently arrived at the view that the Incas may have adopted Quechua for imperial rule precisely because it was already widespread. Before then, the Incas spoke one or two other languages, most likely Aymara and possibly Puquina."
[1]
This refers to the pre-imperial Inca or Killke. The language used in other polities, such as the Pinagua of the Lucre Basin, seems to be undocumented.
[1]: (D’Altroy 2014, 58) |
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|
"Linguists have recently arrived at the view that the Incas may have adopted Quechua for imperial rule precisely because it was already widespread. Before then, the Incas spoke one or two other languages, most likely Aymara and possibly Puquina."
[1]
This refers to the pre-imperial Inca or Killke. The language used in other polities, such as the Pinagua of the Lucre Basin, seems to be undocumented.
[1]: (D’Altroy 2014, 58) |
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|
"Linguists have recently arrived at the view that the Incas may have adopted Quechua for imperial rule precisely because it was already widespread. Before then, the Incas spoke one or two other languages, most likely Aymara and possibly Puquina."
[1]
This refers to the pre-imperial Inca or Killke. The language used in other polities, such as the Pinagua of the Lucre Basin, seems to be undocumented.
[1]: (D’Altroy 2014, 58) |
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160 different languages within the empire, 16 language groups. Araun, Arakawan, Aymaran, Cahuapanan, Harakmbet, Jivaroan, Panoan, Peba-Yaguan, Quechuan, Tacanan, Tucanoan, Tuoi, Witotoan, Zaparoan, two unlabelled. Quechua was the official language.
[1]
"Drawing from historical linguistic and toponymic (place-name) evidence, some linguists suggest that the Incas probably spoke Aymara well into the early imperial era, since that was the language of the southern Peruvian highlands in late prehistory and Aymara place-names are even found as far north as the central Peruvian highlands (Adelaar and Muysken 2004; Cerrón-Palomino 2004, 2008; Heggarty and Beresford-Jones 2012; figure 2.6b). Quechua and Aymara speakers apparently interacted a great deal, to the extent that the two languages now overlap about 30 percent (e.g., in lexicons).6 Such a scenario raises the questions as to when the Incas adopted Quechua as their administrative language, and why. The leading Andean linguist today, Rodolfo Cerrón-Palomino (2012), suggests that the shift may have occurred as late as the rule of Wayna Qhapaq, that is, no more than three or four decades before the Spanish.’ arrival, because its widespread use in the lands to the north made it an effective sociopolitical tool."
[2]
[1]: (Kaufmann and Kaufmann 2012) [2]: (D’Altroy 2014, 59-60) |
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’In the central part of the Northern District of Papua there is a concentration of approximately 26,000 people who are known collectively as the Orokaiva. The term Orokaiva came into use some years after European contact, and before that time the Orokaiva did not recognize themselves as a single group, nor did they all interact for any common purpose. Although they do not claim common ancestry, the various sub-groups possess a relatively homogeneous cultural heritage. The Orokaiva speak several dialects which are mutually intelligible and belong to a common language. [The term Orokaiva has no precise connotation but is here used in its widest sense to include such culturally related groups as the Notu, Binandere, Aiga and Sangara. The word is often used in a more restricted sense to refer to those people (predominantly speakers of the Kombu-Sangara dialects) who are served by the Higaturu Local Government Council.]’
[1]
’Orokaiva, the most representative language, is classified in the Binanderean (or Binandere) family in the non-Austronesian Trans-New Guinea phylum languages spoken in most of the more densely populated parts of Oro Province. Orokaiva is spoken by about half of the population in the Orokaiva-Binandere area. Dialect divisions within the Orokaiva language area are minor; the boundaries of the area coincide with those of the region administered by the Higaturu Local Government Council, which covers the Saiho and most of the Sohe-Popondetta census divisions. While there are considerable vocabulary differences between the Binanderean languages, there is a close resemblance in grammar and enough similarity in vocabulary to make a limited degree of communication possible.’
[2]
[1]: Crocombe, R. G., and G. R. (Geoffrey Robert) Hogbin 1963. “Land, Work, And Productivity At Inonda”, 1 [2]: Latham, Christoper S.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Orokaiva |
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’In the central part of the Northern District of Papua there is a concentration of approximately 26,000 people who are known collectively as the Orokaiva. The term Orokaiva came into use some years after European contact, and before that time the Orokaiva did not recognize themselves as a single group, nor did they all interact for any common purpose. Although they do not claim common ancestry, the various sub-groups possess a relatively homogeneous cultural heritage. The Orokaiva speak several dialects which are mutually intelligible and belong to a common language. [The term Orokaiva has no precise connotation but is here used in its widest sense to include such culturally related groups as the Notu, Binandere, Aiga and Sangara. The word is often used in a more restricted sense to refer to those people (predominantly speakers of the Kombu-Sangara dialects) who are served by the Higaturu Local Government Council.]’
[1]
’Orokaiva, the most representative language, is classified in the Binanderean (or Binandere) family in the non-Austronesian Trans-New Guinea phylum languages spoken in most of the more densely populated parts of Oro Province. Orokaiva is spoken by about half of the population in the Orokaiva-Binandere area. Dialect divisions within the Orokaiva language area are minor; the boundaries of the area coincide with those of the region administered by the Higaturu Local Government Council, which covers the Saiho and most of the Sohe-Popondetta census divisions. While there are considerable vocabulary differences between the Binanderean languages, there is a close resemblance in grammar and enough similarity in vocabulary to make a limited degree of communication possible.’
[2]
[1]: Crocombe, R. G., and G. R. (Geoffrey Robert) Hogbin 1963. “Land, Work, And Productivity At Inonda”, 1 [2]: Latham, Christoper S.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Orokaiva |
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Coins were minted with Greek, Prakrit and Brāhmī script on them.
[1]
[1]: http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/indo-greek-dynasty |
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Coins were minted with Greek, Prakrit and Brāhmī script on them.
[1]
[1]: http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/indo-greek-dynasty |
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|
Coins were minted with Greek, Prakrit and Brāhmī script on them.
[1]
[1]: http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/indo-greek-dynasty |
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[Sindhi; Punjabi]: 1335-1520 CE The Saraiki dialect of punjabi may have been spoken given the geographic territory of the Samma Sind kingdom.
[1]
[1]: Khalid, Samia, and Aftab Hussain Gilani. "Distinctive Cultural and Geographical Legacy of Bahawalpur." Pakistaniaat: A Journal of Pakistan Studies 2, no. 2 (2009): 1-17. |
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[Sindhi; Punjabi]: 1335-1520 CE The Saraiki dialect of punjabi may have been spoken given the geographic territory of the Samma Sind kingdom.
[1]
[1]: Khalid, Samia, and Aftab Hussain Gilani. "Distinctive Cultural and Geographical Legacy of Bahawalpur." Pakistaniaat: A Journal of Pakistan Studies 2, no. 2 (2009): 1-17. |
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The Sakha people refer to their language as ’Sakha’ however, many scholars have used the term ’Yakut’. ’The Yakut speak Yakut, a Northeast Turkic language of the Altaic Language Family. It is one of the most divergent of the Turkic languages, closely related to Dolgan (a mixture of Evenk and Yakut sometimes described as a Yakut dialect). The Yakut, over 90 percent of whom speak Yakut as their mother tongue, call their language "Sakha-tyla." Their current written language, developed in the 1930s, is a modified Cyrillic script. Before this, they had several written forms, including a Latin script developed in the 1920s and a Cyrillic script introduced by missionaries in the nineteenth century. Yakut lore includes legends of a written language lost after they traveled north to the Lena valley.’
[1]
[1]: Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Yakut |
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The Sakha people refer to their language as ’Sakha’ however, many scholars have used the term ’Yakut’. ’The Yakut speak Yakut, a Northeast Turkic language of the Altaic Language Family. It is one of the most divergent of the Turkic languages, closely related to Dolgan (a mixture of Evenk and Yakut sometimes described as a Yakut dialect). The Yakut, over 90 percent of whom speak Yakut as their mother tongue, call their language "Sakha-tyla." Their current written language, developed in the 1930s, is a modified Cyrillic script. Before this, they had several written forms, including a Latin script developed in the 1920s and a Cyrillic script introduced by missionaries in the nineteenth century. Yakut lore includes legends of a written language lost after they traveled north to the Lena valley.’
[1]
Czarist administrators communicated in Russian.
[1]: Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Yakut |
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"Under the administrations of the Caliphs ’Abu al-Malik and Al-Walid, tax registers, resumes and correspondences were translated from local languages to Arabic. The process of using Arabic as an administrative language radiated outward from the centre, being implemented first in Iraq in 697 CE, then to Syria and Egypt, and Khurasan by 700 CE."
[1]
"A multitude of languages were spoken in the territories conquered by Islamic conquest, from Basque in Iberia to Aramaic and Armenian,the various Berber language, African Romance, Georgian, Hebrew, Turkic, Kurdish, and others."
[2]
In Egypt the adoption of Arabic as the language of local government took over 100 years. Initially almost all papyruses were written in Greek. 643 CE saw the first bilingual Greek-Arabic document and 719 the last. Earliest known Arabic only document is dated 709 CE. The last papyrus written in Greek was in 780 CE.
[3]
[1]: (Lapidus 2002, 50) [2]: (Lapidus 2002, p. 126 [3]: (Raymond 2000, 23) |
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|
"Under the administrations of the Caliphs ’Abu al-Malik and Al-Walid, tax registers, resumes and correspondences were translated from local languages to Arabic. The process of using Arabic as an administrative language radiated outward from the centre, being implemented first in Iraq in 697 CE, then to Syria and Egypt, and Khurasan by 700 CE."
[1]
"A multitude of languages were spoken in the territories conquered by Islamic conquest, from Basque in Iberia to Aramaic and Armenian,the various Berber language, African Romance, Georgian, Hebrew, Turkic, Kurdish, and others."
[2]
In Egypt the adoption of Arabic as the language of local government took over 100 years. Initially almost all papyruses were written in Greek. 643 CE saw the first bilingual Greek-Arabic document and 719 the last. Earliest known Arabic only document is dated 709 CE. The last papyrus written in Greek was in 780 CE.
[3]
[1]: (Lapidus 2002, 50) [2]: (Lapidus 2002, p. 126 [3]: (Raymond 2000, 23) |
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|
"Under the administrations of the Caliphs ’Abu al-Malik and Al-Walid, tax registers, resumes and correspondences were translated from local languages to Arabic. The process of using Arabic as an administrative language radiated outward from the centre, being implemented first in Iraq in 697 CE, then to Syria and Egypt, and Khurasan by 700 CE."
[1]
"A multitude of languages were spoken in the territories conquered by Islamic conquest, from Basque in Iberia to Aramaic and Armenian,the various Berber language, African Romance, Georgian, Hebrew, Turkic, Kurdish, and others."
[2]
In Egypt the adoption of Arabic as the language of local government took over 100 years. Initially almost all papyruses were written in Greek. 643 CE saw the first bilingual Greek-Arabic document and 719 the last. Earliest known Arabic only document is dated 709 CE. The last papyrus written in Greek was in 780 CE.
[3]
[1]: (Lapidus 2002, 50) [2]: (Lapidus 2002, p. 126 [3]: (Raymond 2000, 23) |
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|
"Under the administrations of the Caliphs ’Abu al-Malik and Al-Walid, tax registers, resumes and correspondences were translated from local languages to Arabic. The process of using Arabic as an administrative language radiated outward from the centre, being implemented first in Iraq in 697 CE, then to Syria and Egypt, and Khurasan by 700 CE."
[1]
"A multitude of languages were spoken in the territories conquered by Islamic conquest, from Basque in Iberia to Aramaic and Armenian,the various Berber language, African Romance, Georgian, Hebrew, Turkic, Kurdish, and others."
[2]
In Egypt the adoption of Arabic as the language of local government took over 100 years. Initially almost all papyruses were written in Greek. 643 CE saw the first bilingual Greek-Arabic document and 719 the last. Earliest known Arabic only document is dated 709 CE. The last papyrus written in Greek was in 780 CE.
[3]
[1]: (Lapidus 2002, 50) [2]: (Lapidus 2002, p. 126 [3]: (Raymond 2000, 23) |
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-
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"The group of languages now known as Tai probably originated among peoples who lived south of the Yangzi River before the Han Chinese spread from the north into the area before the Han Chinese spread from the north into the area from the 6th century BC. As the Han armies came to control China’s southern coastline in the first few centuries AD, some of these peoples retreated into the high valleys in the hills behind the coast. Then, over many centuries, some moved westwards, spreading Tai language dialects along a 1000-kilometre arc from the Guanxi interior to the Brahmaputra valley. They probably took with them some expertise in growing rice using the water flow from mountain streams."
[1]
[1]: (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, pp. 4-5) |
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|
"The group of languages now known as Tai probably originated among peoples who lived south of the Yangzi River before the Han Chinese spread from the north into the area before the Han Chinese spread from the north into the area from the 6th century BC. As the Han armies came to control China’s southern coastline in the first few centuries AD, some of these peoples retreated into the high valleys in the hills behind the coast. Then, over many centuries, some moved westwards, spreading Tai language dialects along a 1000-kilometre arc from the Guanxi interior to the Brahmaputra valley. They probably took with them some expertise in growing rice using the water flow from mountain streams."
[1]
[1]: (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, pp. 4-5) |
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Arabic was the main language. Persian, Turkic, Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin also "spoken and studied".
[1]
At start of Fatimid period rural people were majority Coptic-spreaking Christians, at end of period many of these Christians were conversing in Arabic.
[2]
Jews started to write Arabic in Hebrew characters.
[3]
[1]: (Qutbuddin 2011, 39) Qutbuddin, Tahera. Fatimids. Ramsamy, Edward. ed. 2011. Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Africa, and Asia. Volume 2. Africa. Sage. Los Angeles. [2]: (Sanders 1998, 169-170) Sanders, Paula A. The Fatimid state, 969-1171. Petry, Carl F. ed. 1998. The Cambridge History of Egypt. Volume One. Islamic Egypt, 640-1517. Cambridge University Press. [3]: (Sanders 1998, 170) Sanders, Paula A. The Fatimid state, 969-1171. Petry, Carl F. ed. 1998. The Cambridge History of Egypt. Volume One. Islamic Egypt, 640-1517. Cambridge University Press. |
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Some scholars suggest that populations speaking the proto-languages of what would later be Luwian/Hittite/Palaic entered and settled in Anatolia during the Neolithic period. Others suggest that Indo-European languages arrived in Anatolia some time during the Chalcolitic to Early Bronze Age periods. The final argument implies that Anatolia was actually part of the original Proto-Indo-European-speaking homeland. Both indigenous and Indo-European languages existed side by side on that plateau from earliest times.
[1]
[1]: Ancient Anatolia, 10,000-323 B.C.E, S.R. Steadman, G.McMahon, Oxford University Press, 2011. Chapter 10 |
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“The Oromo are a Cushitic-speaking people who are related to the Konso, Afar, Somali, and Sidama among others. Until fairly recently, outsiders referred to them as Galla, a term the Oromo never used themselves.”
[1]
[1]: (Shinn and Ofcansky 2013, 318) Shinn, David and Thomas Ofcansky. 2013. Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/29MS79PA/collection |
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|
[1]
[2]
[3]
Most of the society was bilingual or even polilingual in order to be able to run their trade business, which demanded communication with merchants from Ašur and other places. Most cuneiform texts are written in Old Assyrian dialect of Akkadian
[4]
[5]
[1]: Dercksen J. G. 2004. Some Elements of Old Anatolian Sofiety in Kaniš. [in:] J. G. Dercksen (ed.) Assyria and beyond: studies presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen. Leiden: NINO, pg. 137 [2]: Blsweiler J. 2012. Map Languages Anatolia, North Syria and Upper Mesopotamia c. 1700 B.C. Anatolia in the Bronze Age. Arnhelm 2012-3. [1] [3]: Michel C. 2011. The Karum Period on the Plateau. [in:] S. McMahon (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia. New York: Oxford University Press, pg. 327 [4]: Michel C. 2011. The Karum Peeriod on the Plateau. [in:] S. McMahon (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia. New York: Oxford University Press, pg. 327 [5]: also see Blsweiler J. 2012. Map Languages Anatolia, North Syria and Upper Mesopotamia c. 1700 B.C. Anatolia in the Bronze Age. Arnhelm 2012-3. [2]Dercksen J. G. 2004. Some Elements of Old Anatolian Sofiety in Kaniš. [in:] J. G. Dercksen (ed.) Assyria and beyond: studies presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen. Leiden: NINO, pg. 137 |
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|
[1]
[2]
[3]
Most of the society was bilingual or even polilingual in order to be able to run their trade business, which demanded communication with merchants from Ašur and other places. Most cuneiform texts are written in Old Assyrian dialect of Akkadian
[4]
[5]
[1]: Dercksen J. G. 2004. Some Elements of Old Anatolian Sofiety in Kaniš. [in:] J. G. Dercksen (ed.) Assyria and beyond: studies presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen. Leiden: NINO, pg. 137 [2]: Blsweiler J. 2012. Map Languages Anatolia, North Syria and Upper Mesopotamia c. 1700 B.C. Anatolia in the Bronze Age. Arnhelm 2012-3. [1] [3]: Michel C. 2011. The Karum Period on the Plateau. [in:] S. McMahon (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia. New York: Oxford University Press, pg. 327 [4]: Michel C. 2011. The Karum Peeriod on the Plateau. [in:] S. McMahon (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia. New York: Oxford University Press, pg. 327 [5]: also see Blsweiler J. 2012. Map Languages Anatolia, North Syria and Upper Mesopotamia c. 1700 B.C. Anatolia in the Bronze Age. Arnhelm 2012-3. [2]Dercksen J. G. 2004. Some Elements of Old Anatolian Sofiety in Kaniš. [in:] J. G. Dercksen (ed.) Assyria and beyond: studies presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen. Leiden: NINO, pg. 137 |
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|
"five major languages attested—Sabaʾic, Maʿīnic, Qatabānic, Ḥaḍramawtic, and Old Arabic"
[1]
[1]: (Robin 2015: 94) Robin, Christian Julien. 2015. “Before Himyar: Epigraphic Evidence for the Kingdoms of South Arabia.” In Arabs and Empires before Islam, edited by Greg Fisher, 91-126. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www-oxfordscholarship-com.ezp.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199654529.001.0001/acprof-9780199654529-chapter-3. |
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|
[1]
[2]
[3]
Most of the society was bilingual or even polilingual in order to be able to run their trade business, which demanded communication with merchants from Ašur and other places. Most cuneiform texts are written in Old Assyrian dialect of Akkadian
[4]
[5]
[1]: Dercksen J. G. 2004. Some Elements of Old Anatolian Sofiety in Kaniš. [in:] J. G. Dercksen (ed.) Assyria and beyond: studies presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen. Leiden: NINO, pg. 137 [2]: Blsweiler J. 2012. Map Languages Anatolia, North Syria and Upper Mesopotamia c. 1700 B.C. Anatolia in the Bronze Age. Arnhelm 2012-3. [1] [3]: Michel C. 2011. The Karum Period on the Plateau. [in:] S. McMahon (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia. New York: Oxford University Press, pg. 327 [4]: Michel C. 2011. The Karum Peeriod on the Plateau. [in:] S. McMahon (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia. New York: Oxford University Press, pg. 327 [5]: also see Blsweiler J. 2012. Map Languages Anatolia, North Syria and Upper Mesopotamia c. 1700 B.C. Anatolia in the Bronze Age. Arnhelm 2012-3. [2]Dercksen J. G. 2004. Some Elements of Old Anatolian Sofiety in Kaniš. [in:] J. G. Dercksen (ed.) Assyria and beyond: studies presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen. Leiden: NINO, pg. 137 |
||||||
|
[1]
[2]
[3]
Most of the society was bilingual or even polilingual in order to be able to run their trade business, which demanded communication with merchants from Ašur and other places. Most cuneiform texts are written in Old Assyrian dialect of Akkadian
[4]
[5]
[1]: Dercksen J. G. 2004. Some Elements of Old Anatolian Sofiety in Kaniš. [in:] J. G. Dercksen (ed.) Assyria and beyond: studies presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen. Leiden: NINO, pg. 137 [2]: Blsweiler J. 2012. Map Languages Anatolia, North Syria and Upper Mesopotamia c. 1700 B.C. Anatolia in the Bronze Age. Arnhelm 2012-3. [1] [3]: Michel C. 2011. The Karum Period on the Plateau. [in:] S. McMahon (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia. New York: Oxford University Press, pg. 327 [4]: Michel C. 2011. The Karum Peeriod on the Plateau. [in:] S. McMahon (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia. New York: Oxford University Press, pg. 327 [5]: also see Blsweiler J. 2012. Map Languages Anatolia, North Syria and Upper Mesopotamia c. 1700 B.C. Anatolia in the Bronze Age. Arnhelm 2012-3. [2]Dercksen J. G. 2004. Some Elements of Old Anatolian Sofiety in Kaniš. [in:] J. G. Dercksen (ed.) Assyria and beyond: studies presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen. Leiden: NINO, pg. 137 |
||||||
|
[1]
[2]
[3]
Most of the society was bilingual or even polilingual in order to be able to run their trade business, which demanded communication with merchants from Ašur and other places. Most cuneiform texts are written in Old Assyrian dialect of Akkadian
[4]
[5]
[1]: Dercksen J. G. 2004. Some Elements of Old Anatolian Sofiety in Kaniš. [in:] J. G. Dercksen (ed.) Assyria and beyond: studies presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen. Leiden: NINO, pg. 137 [2]: Blsweiler J. 2012. Map Languages Anatolia, North Syria and Upper Mesopotamia c. 1700 B.C. Anatolia in the Bronze Age. Arnhelm 2012-3. [1] [3]: Michel C. 2011. The Karum Period on the Plateau. [in:] S. McMahon (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia. New York: Oxford University Press, pg. 327 [4]: Michel C. 2011. The Karum Peeriod on the Plateau. [in:] S. McMahon (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia. New York: Oxford University Press, pg. 327 [5]: also see Blsweiler J. 2012. Map Languages Anatolia, North Syria and Upper Mesopotamia c. 1700 B.C. Anatolia in the Bronze Age. Arnhelm 2012-3. [2]Dercksen J. G. 2004. Some Elements of Old Anatolian Sofiety in Kaniš. [in:] J. G. Dercksen (ed.) Assyria and beyond: studies presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen. Leiden: NINO, pg. 137 |
||||||
|
"In some of the central authorities Greek had established itself as the language of the chancery since the beginning of the fourth century, in contrast to the army, which retained Latin as the official military language until the beginning of the seventh century. Other imperial authorities, above all the ministry of justice, kept to the Latin language until the beginning of the seventh century."
[1]
Heraclius (r.610-641 CE) made Greek the official language.
[2]
"Greek (spoken by the population as first language in southern Balkans and most of Anatolia, as second language Empire-wide) and Latin (spoken by part of the population as first language in the remaining possessions in Italy), Languages of minorities, migrants and deportees: Syriac, Armenian (in some eastern provinces of Anatolia, also as languages of liturgy and sacred literature), Slavonic (Balkans, deportees to Anatolia)."
[3]
[1]: (Haussig 1971) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. [2]: (Davidson 2011, 76-77) Davidson, P. 2011. Atlas of Empires. New Holland Publishers (UK) Ltd. London. [3]: (Johannes Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences) |
||||||
|
"In some of the central authorities Greek had established itself as the language of the chancery since the beginning of the fourth century, in contrast to the army, which retained Latin as the official military language until the beginning of the seventh century. Other imperial authorities, above all the ministry of justice, kept to the Latin language until the beginning of the seventh century."
[1]
Heraclius (r.610-641 CE) made Greek the official language.
[2]
"Greek (spoken by the population as first language in southern Balkans and most of Anatolia, as second language Empire-wide) and Latin (spoken by part of the population as first language in the remaining possessions in Italy), Languages of minorities, migrants and deportees: Syriac, Armenian (in some eastern provinces of Anatolia, also as languages of liturgy and sacred literature), Slavonic (Balkans, deportees to Anatolia)."
[3]
[1]: (Haussing 1971) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. [2]: (Davidson 2011, 76-77) Davidson, P. 2011. Atlas of Empires. New Holland Publishers (UK) Ltd. London. [3]: (Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences) |
||||||
|
"In some of the central authorities Greek had established itself as the language of the chancery since the beginning of the fourth century, in contrast to the army, which retained Latin as the official military language until the beginning of the seventh century. Other imperial authorities, above all the ministry of justice, kept to the Latin language until the beginning of the seventh century."
[1]
Heraclius (r.610-641 CE) made Greek the official language.
[2]
; "Greek (spoken by the population as first language in southern Balkans and most of Anatolia, as second language Empire-wide) and Latin (spoken by part of the population as first language in the remaining possessions in Italy), Languages of minorities, migrants and deportees: Syriac, Armenian (in some eastern provinces of Anatolia, also as languages of liturgy and sacred literature), Slavonic (Balkans, deportees to Anatolia)."
[3]
[1]: (Haussing 1971) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. [2]: (Davidson 2011, 76-77) Davidson, P. 2011. Atlas of Empires. New Holland Publishers (UK) Ltd. London. [3]: (Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences) |
||||||
|
Spoken by the population as first language in southern Balkans and most of Anatolia, as second language Empire-wide) and (still) Latin (spoken by the population as first language in the northern Balkans), wide usage of Coptic in Egypt, Syriac in Syria and Palestine, Armenian in some eastern provinces of Anatolia (also as languages of liturgy and sacred literature.
|
||||||
|
And many others.
[1]
"We find that no fewer than eight languages are represented in the tablet archives of the capital. Probably as many if not more languages were spoken in the streets of the capital every day, some of them quite different from the languages of the archives."
[2]
"The official language of the kingdom was an Indo-European language called Nesite, which we commonly refer to today as the ’Hittite’ language."
[3]
Luwian was not the official language but it "very likely became the most widely spoken language of the Late Bronze Age Hittite empire."
[4]
"The Cuneiform script was used throughout its history to write a number of different languages, and the Hattusa archives are composed for the most part in their writers’ own language, generally termed by us ’Hittite’, but by them ’Nesite’, i.e. the language of Nesa or Kanes (modern Kultepe), which had presumably been an earlier Hittite centre, before Hattusa in Hatti. ... The Hittites also used the language Akkadian (’Babylonian’ to them) as the international language of communication."
[5]
Other languages "found in the archives, mostly of ritual and mythological content. These include Hattian, the pre-Hittite language of Hatti, and Hurrian, the language of the Hittites eastern neighbours; also Luwian and Palaic, languages closely related to Hittite, spoken by their kinsmen dwelling respectively to the south and south-west, and to the north-west of Hatti, and constituting with Hittite the IInd millennium B.C. section of the Anatolian group of Indo-European."
[5]
[1]: Popko M. (1999) Ludy i języki starożytnej Anatolii, Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Akademickie Dialog, pp. 51-70 [2]: (Bryce 2002, 5-6) [3]: (Bryce 2002, 8) [4]: (Bryce 2012, 15) [5]: (Hawkins 2000, 2) John David Hawkins. 2000. Corpus of Hieroglyphic Luwian Inscriptions. Volume I. Inscriptions of the Iron Age. Walter de Gruyter. Berlin. |
||||||
|
And many others.
[1]
"We find that no fewer than eight languages are represented in the tablet archives of the capital. Probably as many if not more languages were spoken in the streets of the capital every day, some of them quite different from the languages of the archives."
[2]
"The official language of the kingdom was an Indo-European language called Nesite, which we commonly refer to today as the ’Hittite’ language."
[3]
Luwian was not the official language but it "very likely became the most widely spoken language of the Late Bronze Age Hittite empire."
[4]
"The Cuneiform script was used throughout its history to write a number of different languages, and the Hattusa archives are composed for the most part in their writers’ own language, generally termed by us ’Hittite’, but by them ’Nesite’, i.e. the language of Nesa or Kanes (modern Kultepe), which had presumably been an earlier Hittite centre, before Hattusa in Hatti. ... The Hittites also used the language Akkadian (’Babylonian’ to them) as the international language of communication."
[5]
Other languages "found in the archives, mostly of ritual and mythological content. These include Hattian, the pre-Hittite language of Hatti, and Hurrian, the language of the Hittites eastern neighbours; also Luwian and Palaic, languages closely related to Hittite, spoken by their kinsmen dwelling respectively to the south and south-west, and to the north-west of Hatti, and constituting with Hittite the IInd millennium B.C. section of the Anatolian group of Indo-European."
[5]
[1]: Popko M. (1999) Ludy i języki starożytnej Anatolii, Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Akademickie Dialog, pp. 51-70 [2]: (Bryce 2002, 5-6) [3]: (Bryce 2002, 8) [4]: (Bryce 2012, 15) [5]: (Hawkins 2000, 2) John David Hawkins. 2000. Corpus of Hieroglyphic Luwian Inscriptions. Volume I. Inscriptions of the Iron Age. Walter de Gruyter. Berlin. |
||||||
|
There are two schools of thought about the origins of the Lydian language. One suggests that it arose in north-western Anatolia and its speakers entered and settled Lydia sometime after the 12th century CBE, before written Lydia arose in 7th century CBE. Other scholars suggest that Lydia was the language of the Bronze Age including the first settlers of Sardis and other urban centres of the time.
[1]
[1]: Roosevelt, C.H. 2012. Iron Age Western Anatolia. In Potts, D.T. (ed.) A Companion to the Archaeology of the Near East. London: Blackwell. p. 897-913 |
||||||
|
"The region called Tabal in the Iron Age extended over a large part of south-eastern Anatolia, southwards from the southern curve of the Halys river (Kizil Irmak) toward the Taurus mountains, westwards to the Konya Plain and eastwards towards the anti-Taurus range. The population of the region was very likely a predominantly Luwian one, as it had been throughout the Late Bronze Age and perhaps already in the early second millennium."
[1]
"In the post-Bronze Age era, Hittite cuneiform disappeared entirely. There is not the slightest trace of it in any of the Iron Age successor-kingdoms of the Hittites. One might reasonably suppose that along with the disappearance of the written language, Nesite also disappeared as a spoken one."
[2]
[1]: (Bryce 2012, 141) [2]: (Bryce 2012, 16) |
||||||
|
Altaic, Turkic, Southern, Turkish.
[1]
Persian was used for international correspondence. Turkish was the official language of state. However, it was a "highly Persianate Turkish" called Osmanli.
[2]
On a regional non-governing basis: "in no province of the Empire was there a unique language."
[3]
Other languages: Slavonic, Greek, Albanian, romance-speaking Vlachs, Greek, Armenian, Kurdish, Arabic.
[4]
[2]: (Hodgson 1961, 562) [3]: (Imber 2002, 2) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. [4]: (Imber 2002, 2) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. |
||||||
|
Altaic, Turkic, Southern, Turkish.
[1]
Persian was used for international correspondence. Turkish was the official language of state. However, it was a "highly Persianate Turkish" called Osmanli.
[2]
On a regional non-governing basis: "in no province of the Empire was there a unique language."
[3]
Other languages: Slavonic, Greek, Albanian, romance-speaking Vlachs, Greek, Armenian, Kurdish, Arabic.
[4]
[2]: (Hodgson 1961, 562) [3]: (Imber 2002, 2) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. [4]: (Imber 2002, 2) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. |
||||||
|
On a regional non-governing basis: "in no province of the Empire was there a unique language."
[1]
Other languages: Slavonic, Greek, Albanian, romance-speaking Vlachs, Greek, Armenian, Kurdish, Arabic, Persian.
[2]
[3]
[1]: (Imber 2002, 2) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. [2]: (Imber 2002, 2) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. [3]: (Cosgel, Metin. Personal Communication to Peter Turchin. April 2020) |
||||||
|
On a regional non-governing basis: "in no province of the Empire was there a unique language."
[1]
Other languages: Slavonic, Greek, Albanian, romance-speaking Vlachs, Greek, Armenian, Kurdish, Arabic, Persian.
[2]
[3]
[1]: (Imber 2002, 2) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. [2]: (Imber 2002, 2) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. [3]: (Cosgel, Metin. Personal Communication to Peter Turchin. April 2020) |
||||||
|
"five major languages attested—Sabaʾic, Maʿīnic, Qatabānic, Ḥaḍramawtic, and Old Arabic"
[1]
[1]: (Robin 2015: 94) Robin, Christian Julien. 2015. “Before Himyar: Epigraphic Evidence for the Kingdoms of South Arabia.” In Arabs and Empires before Islam, edited by Greg Fisher, 91-126. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www-oxfordscholarship-com.ezp.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199654529.001.0001/acprof-9780199654529-chapter-3. |
||||||
|
"Diversity was visible too in linguistic terms, with a division between the use of Latin as the major public language (used, for instance, in inscriptions) in the western provinces and Greek in the east - although Latin was the official language of Roman law throughout the empire (Millar 1999: 105-8). It should be noted, however, that Latin was phased out as the language of governance and law in the east under Justinian. By then, the east constituted the core of imperial territory, and Latin would likely have been incomprehensible to the larger part of its inhabitants; thus Justinian’s decision was a tardy recognition of everyday realities by the slow-moving engines of the administration."
[1]
"In Africa, Punic was widely spoken as well as Latin, and in a famous passage of The City of God Augustine reminds the reader that the imperious Roman capital had not only placed the yoke of dominion on defeated peoples; it had also imposed Latin as the official language (Augustine, The City of God, 19, 7)."
[2]
[1]: (Croke 2005: 73-4) [2]: (Triana 2011, 86) Giusto Triana. 2011. 428 AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. Princeton University Press. |
||||||
|
"Diversity was visible too in linguistic terms, with a division between the use of Latin as the major public language (used, for instance, in inscriptions) in the western provinces and Greek in the east - although Latin was the official language of Roman law throughout the empire (Millar 1999: 105-8). It should be noted, however, that Latin was phased out as the language of governance and law in the east under Justinian. By then, the east constituted the core of imperial territory, and Latin would likely have been incomprehensible to the larger part of its inhabitants; thus Justinian’s decision was a tardy recognition of everyday realities by the slow-moving engines of the administration."
[1]
"In Africa, Punic was widely spoken as well as Latin, and in a famous passage of The City of God Augustine reminds the reader that the imperious Roman capital had not only placed the yoke of dominion on defeated peoples; it had also imposed Latin as the official language (Augustine, The City of God, 19, 7)."
[2]
[1]: (Croke 2005: 73-4) [2]: (Triana 2011, 86) Giusto Triana. 2011. 428 AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. Princeton University Press. |
||||||
|
[1]
[1]: Illinois State Museum, The Illinois, Identity: Language (2000), http://www.museum.state.il.us/muslink/nat_amer/post/htmls/id_lang.html |
||||||
|
’The languages of the 6 tribes are classified in the Northern Iroquoian branch of the Iroquoian language family.’
[1]
’Iroquois, any member of the North American Indian tribes speaking a language of the Iroquoian family-notably the Cayuga, Cherokee, Huron, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca, and Tuscarora. The peoples who spoke Iroquoian languages occupied a continuous territory around Lakes Ontario, Huron, and Erie, in present-day New York state and Pennsylvania (U.S.) and southern Ontario and Quebec (Canada). That larger group should be differentiated from the Five Nations (later Six Nations) better known as the Iroquois Confederacy (self name Haudenosaunee Confederacy).’
[2]
’The League of the Iroquois was originally a confederacy of 5 North American Indian tribes: the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. A sixth tribe, the Tuscarora, joined the League in 1722 after migrating north from the region of the Roanoke River in response to hostilities with White colonists. [...] On the eve of European contact the Iroquois territory extended from Lake Champlain and Lake George west to the Genesee River and Lake Ontario and from the St. Lawrence River south to the Susquehanna River. Within these boundaries each of the original 5 tribes occupied an north-south oblong strip of territory; from east to west, they were the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. The region was primarily lake and hill country dissected by numerous rivers. Deciduous forests of birch, beech, maple and elm dominated the region, giving way to fir and spruce forests in the north and in the higher elevations of the Adirondack Mountains. In aboriginal times fish and animal species were diverse and abundant.’
[1]
[1]: Reid, Gerald: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iroquois [2]: http://www.britannica.com/topic/Iroquois-people |
||||||
|
’The languages of the 6 tribes are classified in the Northern Iroquoian branch of the Iroquoian language family.’
[1]
’Iroquois, any member of the North American Indian tribes speaking a language of the Iroquoian family-notably the Cayuga, Cherokee, Huron, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca, and Tuscarora. The peoples who spoke Iroquoian languages occupied a continuous territory around Lakes Ontario, Huron, and Erie, in present-day New York state and Pennsylvania (U.S.) and southern Ontario and Quebec (Canada). That larger group should be differentiated from the Five Nations (later Six Nations) better known as the Iroquois Confederacy (self name Haudenosaunee Confederacy).’
[2]
’The League of the Iroquois was originally a confederacy of 5 North American Indian tribes: the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. A sixth tribe, the Tuscarora, joined the League in 1722 after migrating north from the region of the Roanoke River in response to hostilities with White colonists. [...] On the eve of European contact the Iroquois territory extended from Lake Champlain and Lake George west to the Genesee River and Lake Ontario and from the St. Lawrence River south to the Susquehanna River. Within these boundaries each of the original 5 tribes occupied an north-south oblong strip of territory; from east to west, they were the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. The region was primarily lake and hill country dissected by numerous rivers. Deciduous forests of birch, beech, maple and elm dominated the region, giving way to fir and spruce forests in the north and in the higher elevations of the Adirondack Mountains. In aboriginal times fish and animal species were diverse and abundant.’
[1]
[1]: Reid, Gerald: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iroquois [2]: http://www.britannica.com/topic/Iroquois-people |
||||||
|
"five major languages attested—Sabaʾic, Maʿīnic, Qatabānic, Ḥaḍramawtic, and Old Arabic"
[1]
[1]: (Robin 2015: 94) Robin, Christian Julien. 2015. “Before Himyar: Epigraphic Evidence for the Kingdoms of South Arabia.” In Arabs and Empires before Islam, edited by Greg Fisher, 91-126. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www-oxfordscholarship-com.ezp.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199654529.001.0001/acprof-9780199654529-chapter-3. |
||||||
|
’The languages of the 6 tribes are classified in the Northern Iroquoian branch of the Iroquoian language family.’
[1]
’Iroquois, any member of the North American Indian tribes speaking a language of the Iroquoian family-notably the Cayuga, Cherokee, Huron, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca, and Tuscarora. The peoples who spoke Iroquoian languages occupied a continuous territory around Lakes Ontario, Huron, and Erie, in present-day New York state and Pennsylvania (U.S.) and southern Ontario and Quebec (Canada). That larger group should be differentiated from the Five Nations (later Six Nations) better known as the Iroquois Confederacy (self name Haudenosaunee Confederacy).’
[2]
’The League of the Iroquois was originally a confederacy of 5 North American Indian tribes: the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. A sixth tribe, the Tuscarora, joined the League in 1722 after migrating north from the region of the Roanoke River in response to hostilities with White colonists. [...] On the eve of European contact the Iroquois territory extended from Lake Champlain and Lake George west to the Genesee River and Lake Ontario and from the St. Lawrence River south to the Susquehanna River. Within these boundaries each of the original 5 tribes occupied an north-south oblong strip of territory; from east to west, they were the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. The region was primarily lake and hill country dissected by numerous rivers. Deciduous forests of birch, beech, maple and elm dominated the region, giving way to fir and spruce forests in the north and in the higher elevations of the Adirondack Mountains. In aboriginal times fish and animal species were diverse and abundant.’
[1]
[1]: Reid, Gerald: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iroquois [2]: http://www.britannica.com/topic/Iroquois-people |
||||||
|
’The languages of the 6 tribes are classified in the Northern Iroquoian branch of the Iroquoian language family.’
[1]
’Iroquois, any member of the North American Indian tribes speaking a language of the Iroquoian family-notably the Cayuga, Cherokee, Huron, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca, and Tuscarora. The peoples who spoke Iroquoian languages occupied a continuous territory around Lakes Ontario, Huron, and Erie, in present-day New York state and Pennsylvania (U.S.) and southern Ontario and Quebec (Canada). That larger group should be differentiated from the Five Nations (later Six Nations) better known as the Iroquois Confederacy (self name Haudenosaunee Confederacy).’
[2]
’The League of the Iroquois was originally a confederacy of 5 North American Indian tribes: the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. A sixth tribe, the Tuscarora, joined the League in 1722 after migrating north from the region of the Roanoke River in response to hostilities with White colonists. [...] On the eve of European contact the Iroquois territory extended from Lake Champlain and Lake George west to the Genesee River and Lake Ontario and from the St. Lawrence River south to the Susquehanna River. Within these boundaries each of the original 5 tribes occupied an north-south oblong strip of territory; from east to west, they were the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. The region was primarily lake and hill country dissected by numerous rivers. Deciduous forests of birch, beech, maple and elm dominated the region, giving way to fir and spruce forests in the north and in the higher elevations of the Adirondack Mountains. In aboriginal times fish and animal species were diverse and abundant.’
[1]
[1]: Reid, Gerald: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iroquois [2]: http://www.britannica.com/topic/Iroquois-people |
||||||
|
’The languages of the 6 tribes are classified in the Northern Iroquoian branch of the Iroquoian language family.’
[1]
’Iroquois, any member of the North American Indian tribes speaking a language of the Iroquoian family-notably the Cayuga, Cherokee, Huron, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca, and Tuscarora. The peoples who spoke Iroquoian languages occupied a continuous territory around Lakes Ontario, Huron, and Erie, in present-day New York state and Pennsylvania (U.S.) and southern Ontario and Quebec (Canada). That larger group should be differentiated from the Five Nations (later Six Nations) better known as the Iroquois Confederacy (self name Haudenosaunee Confederacy).’
[2]
’The League of the Iroquois was originally a confederacy of 5 North American Indian tribes: the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. A sixth tribe, the Tuscarora, joined the League in 1722 after migrating north from the region of the Roanoke River in response to hostilities with White colonists. [...] On the eve of European contact the Iroquois territory extended from Lake Champlain and Lake George west to the Genesee River and Lake Ontario and from the St. Lawrence River south to the Susquehanna River. Within these boundaries each of the original 5 tribes occupied an north-south oblong strip of territory; from east to west, they were the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. The region was primarily lake and hill country dissected by numerous rivers. Deciduous forests of birch, beech, maple and elm dominated the region, giving way to fir and spruce forests in the north and in the higher elevations of the Adirondack Mountains. In aboriginal times fish and animal species were diverse and abundant.’
[1]
[1]: Reid, Gerald: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iroquois [2]: http://www.britannica.com/topic/Iroquois-people |
||||||
|
’The languages of the 6 tribes are classified in the Northern Iroquoian branch of the Iroquoian language family.’
[1]
’Iroquois, any member of the North American Indian tribes speaking a language of the Iroquoian family-notably the Cayuga, Cherokee, Huron, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca, and Tuscarora. The peoples who spoke Iroquoian languages occupied a continuous territory around Lakes Ontario, Huron, and Erie, in present-day New York state and Pennsylvania (U.S.) and southern Ontario and Quebec (Canada). That larger group should be differentiated from the Five Nations (later Six Nations) better known as the Iroquois Confederacy (self name Haudenosaunee Confederacy).’
[2]
’The League of the Iroquois was originally a confederacy of 5 North American Indian tribes: the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. A sixth tribe, the Tuscarora, joined the League in 1722 after migrating north from the region of the Roanoke River in response to hostilities with White colonists. [...] On the eve of European contact the Iroquois territory extended from Lake Champlain and Lake George west to the Genesee River and Lake Ontario and from the St. Lawrence River south to the Susquehanna River. Within these boundaries each of the original 5 tribes occupied an north-south oblong strip of territory; from east to west, they were the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. The region was primarily lake and hill country dissected by numerous rivers. Deciduous forests of birch, beech, maple and elm dominated the region, giving way to fir and spruce forests in the north and in the higher elevations of the Adirondack Mountains. In aboriginal times fish and animal species were diverse and abundant.’
[1]
[1]: Reid, Gerald: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iroquois [2]: http://www.britannica.com/topic/Iroquois-people |
||||||
|
"five major languages attested—Sabaʾic, Maʿīnic, Qatabānic, Ḥaḍramawtic, and Old Arabic"
[1]
[1]: (Robin 2015: 94) Robin, Christian Julien. 2015. “Before Himyar: Epigraphic Evidence for the Kingdoms of South Arabia.” In Arabs and Empires before Islam, edited by Greg Fisher, 91-126. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www-oxfordscholarship-com.ezp.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199654529.001.0001/acprof-9780199654529-chapter-3. |
||||||
|
’The languages of the 6 tribes are classified in the Northern Iroquoian branch of the Iroquoian language family.’
[1]
’Iroquois, any member of the North American Indian tribes speaking a language of the Iroquoian family-notably the Cayuga, Cherokee, Huron, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca, and Tuscarora. The peoples who spoke Iroquoian languages occupied a continuous territory around Lakes Ontario, Huron, and Erie, in present-day New York state and Pennsylvania (U.S.) and southern Ontario and Quebec (Canada). That larger group should be differentiated from the Five Nations (later Six Nations) better known as the Iroquois Confederacy (self name Haudenosaunee Confederacy).’
[2]
’The League of the Iroquois was originally a confederacy of 5 North American Indian tribes: the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. A sixth tribe, the Tuscarora, joined the League in 1722 after migrating north from the region of the Roanoke River in response to hostilities with White colonists. [...] On the eve of European contact the Iroquois territory extended from Lake Champlain and Lake George west to the Genesee River and Lake Ontario and from the St. Lawrence River south to the Susquehanna River. Within these boundaries each of the original 5 tribes occupied an north-south oblong strip of territory; from east to west, they were the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. The region was primarily lake and hill country dissected by numerous rivers. Deciduous forests of birch, beech, maple and elm dominated the region, giving way to fir and spruce forests in the north and in the higher elevations of the Adirondack Mountains. In aboriginal times fish and animal species were diverse and abundant.’
[1]
[1]: Reid, Gerald: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iroquois [2]: http://www.britannica.com/topic/Iroquois-people |
||||||
|
’The languages of the 6 tribes are classified in the Northern Iroquoian branch of the Iroquoian language family.’
[1]
’Iroquois, any member of the North American Indian tribes speaking a language of the Iroquoian family-notably the Cayuga, Cherokee, Huron, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca, and Tuscarora. The peoples who spoke Iroquoian languages occupied a continuous territory around Lakes Ontario, Huron, and Erie, in present-day New York state and Pennsylvania (U.S.) and southern Ontario and Quebec (Canada). That larger group should be differentiated from the Five Nations (later Six Nations) better known as the Iroquois Confederacy (self name Haudenosaunee Confederacy).’
[2]
’The League of the Iroquois was originally a confederacy of 5 North American Indian tribes: the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. A sixth tribe, the Tuscarora, joined the League in 1722 after migrating north from the region of the Roanoke River in response to hostilities with White colonists. [...] On the eve of European contact the Iroquois territory extended from Lake Champlain and Lake George west to the Genesee River and Lake Ontario and from the St. Lawrence River south to the Susquehanna River. Within these boundaries each of the original 5 tribes occupied an north-south oblong strip of territory; from east to west, they were the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. The region was primarily lake and hill country dissected by numerous rivers. Deciduous forests of birch, beech, maple and elm dominated the region, giving way to fir and spruce forests in the north and in the higher elevations of the Adirondack Mountains. In aboriginal times fish and animal species were diverse and abundant.’
[1]
[1]: Reid, Gerald: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iroquois [2]: http://www.britannica.com/topic/Iroquois-people |
||||||
|
’The languages of the 6 tribes are classified in the Northern Iroquoian branch of the Iroquoian language family.’
[1]
’Iroquois, any member of the North American Indian tribes speaking a language of the Iroquoian family-notably the Cayuga, Cherokee, Huron, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca, and Tuscarora. The peoples who spoke Iroquoian languages occupied a continuous territory around Lakes Ontario, Huron, and Erie, in present-day New York state and Pennsylvania (U.S.) and southern Ontario and Quebec (Canada). That larger group should be differentiated from the Five Nations (later Six Nations) better known as the Iroquois Confederacy (self name Haudenosaunee Confederacy).’
[2]
’The League of the Iroquois was originally a confederacy of 5 North American Indian tribes: the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. A sixth tribe, the Tuscarora, joined the League in 1722 after migrating north from the region of the Roanoke River in response to hostilities with White colonists. [...] On the eve of European contact the Iroquois territory extended from Lake Champlain and Lake George west to the Genesee River and Lake Ontario and from the St. Lawrence River south to the Susquehanna River. Within these boundaries each of the original 5 tribes occupied an north-south oblong strip of territory; from east to west, they were the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. The region was primarily lake and hill country dissected by numerous rivers. Deciduous forests of birch, beech, maple and elm dominated the region, giving way to fir and spruce forests in the north and in the higher elevations of the Adirondack Mountains. In aboriginal times fish and animal species were diverse and abundant.’
[1]
[1]: Reid, Gerald: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iroquois [2]: http://www.britannica.com/topic/Iroquois-people |
||||||
|
’The languages of the 6 tribes are classified in the Northern Iroquoian branch of the Iroquoian language family.’
[1]
’Iroquois, any member of the North American Indian tribes speaking a language of the Iroquoian family-notably the Cayuga, Cherokee, Huron, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca, and Tuscarora. The peoples who spoke Iroquoian languages occupied a continuous territory around Lakes Ontario, Huron, and Erie, in present-day New York state and Pennsylvania (U.S.) and southern Ontario and Quebec (Canada). That larger group should be differentiated from the Five Nations (later Six Nations) better known as the Iroquois Confederacy (self name Haudenosaunee Confederacy).’
[2]
’The League of the Iroquois was originally a confederacy of 5 North American Indian tribes: the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. A sixth tribe, the Tuscarora, joined the League in 1722 after migrating north from the region of the Roanoke River in response to hostilities with White colonists. [...] On the eve of European contact the Iroquois territory extended from Lake Champlain and Lake George west to the Genesee River and Lake Ontario and from the St. Lawrence River south to the Susquehanna River. Within these boundaries each of the original 5 tribes occupied an north-south oblong strip of territory; from east to west, they were the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. The region was primarily lake and hill country dissected by numerous rivers. Deciduous forests of birch, beech, maple and elm dominated the region, giving way to fir and spruce forests in the north and in the higher elevations of the Adirondack Mountains. In aboriginal times fish and animal species were diverse and abundant.’
[1]
[1]: Reid, Gerald: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iroquois [2]: http://www.britannica.com/topic/Iroquois-people |
||||||
|
’The languages of the 6 tribes are classified in the Northern Iroquoian branch of the Iroquoian language family.’
[1]
’Iroquois, any member of the North American Indian tribes speaking a language of the Iroquoian family-notably the Cayuga, Cherokee, Huron, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca, and Tuscarora. The peoples who spoke Iroquoian languages occupied a continuous territory around Lakes Ontario, Huron, and Erie, in present-day New York state and Pennsylvania (U.S.) and southern Ontario and Quebec (Canada). That larger group should be differentiated from the Five Nations (later Six Nations) better known as the Iroquois Confederacy (self name Haudenosaunee Confederacy).’
[2]
’The League of the Iroquois was originally a confederacy of 5 North American Indian tribes: the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. A sixth tribe, the Tuscarora, joined the League in 1722 after migrating north from the region of the Roanoke River in response to hostilities with White colonists. [...] On the eve of European contact the Iroquois territory extended from Lake Champlain and Lake George west to the Genesee River and Lake Ontario and from the St. Lawrence River south to the Susquehanna River. Within these boundaries each of the original 5 tribes occupied an north-south oblong strip of territory; from east to west, they were the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. The region was primarily lake and hill country dissected by numerous rivers. Deciduous forests of birch, beech, maple and elm dominated the region, giving way to fir and spruce forests in the north and in the higher elevations of the Adirondack Mountains. In aboriginal times fish and animal species were diverse and abundant.’
[1]
[1]: Reid, Gerald: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iroquois [2]: http://www.britannica.com/topic/Iroquois-people |
||||||
|
"five major languages attested—Sabaʾic, Maʿīnic, Qatabānic, Ḥaḍramawtic, and Old Arabic"
[1]
[1]: (Robin 2015: 94) Robin, Christian Julien. 2015. “Before Himyar: Epigraphic Evidence for the Kingdoms of South Arabia.” In Arabs and Empires before Islam, edited by Greg Fisher, 91-126. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZMFH42PE. |
||||||
|
’The languages of the 6 tribes are classified in the Northern Iroquoian branch of the Iroquoian language family.’
[1]
’Iroquois, any member of the North American Indian tribes speaking a language of the Iroquoian family-notably the Cayuga, Cherokee, Huron, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca, and Tuscarora. The peoples who spoke Iroquoian languages occupied a continuous territory around Lakes Ontario, Huron, and Erie, in present-day New York state and Pennsylvania (U.S.) and southern Ontario and Quebec (Canada). That larger group should be differentiated from the Five Nations (later Six Nations) better known as the Iroquois Confederacy (self name Haudenosaunee Confederacy).’
[2]
’The League of the Iroquois was originally a confederacy of 5 North American Indian tribes: the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. A sixth tribe, the Tuscarora, joined the League in 1722 after migrating north from the region of the Roanoke River in response to hostilities with White colonists. [...] On the eve of European contact the Iroquois territory extended from Lake Champlain and Lake George west to the Genesee River and Lake Ontario and from the St. Lawrence River south to the Susquehanna River. Within these boundaries each of the original 5 tribes occupied an north-south oblong strip of territory; from east to west, they were the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. The region was primarily lake and hill country dissected by numerous rivers. Deciduous forests of birch, beech, maple and elm dominated the region, giving way to fir and spruce forests in the north and in the higher elevations of the Adirondack Mountains. In aboriginal times fish and animal species were diverse and abundant.’
[1]
[1]: Reid, Gerald: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iroquois [2]: http://www.britannica.com/topic/Iroquois-people |
||||||
|
After the Arab conquest of Central Asia in the eighth century Arabic became the "new language for official communication and intellectual interchange".
[1]
However, the local groups - Sogdians, Khwarazmians, Khurasanis, Pamiris, Baktrians, or Tokharians - spoke Iranian languages.
[1]
"I suggest that much of the bureaucracy of the court of Bukhara was conducted in written Persian, while Persian was the "official" spoken language and Arabic was also used for more formal, for religious and for caliphal matters. In effect the Samanid bureaucracy was bilingual."
[2]
"By the tenth century, the majority of the various Iranian peoples of Khurasan, Transoxania and Khwarazm - Persians, Bactrians, Sogdians, Khwarazmians and others - were using the New Persian (Farsi-Dari) language as their spoken and written form of communication, although such Middle Iranian languages as Khwarazmian and Sogdian were still in use in certain regions - in the case of the former, for some four centuries subsequently."
[3]
"Ahmad b. Ismail (907-14), portrayed in the sources as a devout Muslim. He reinstated Arabic as the language of administration in place of Persian and favoured officials who knew Arabic"
[4]
[1]: (Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia’s Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton. [2]: (Frye 1975, 145) Frye, Richard Nelson. 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. [3]: (Negmatov 1997, 83) Negmatov, N N. in Asimov, M S and Bosworth, C E eds. 1997. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part I. UNESCO. [4]: (Negmatov 1997, 85) Negmatov, N N. in Asimov, M S and Bosworth, C E eds. 1997. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part I. UNESCO. |
||||||
|
After the Arab conquest of Central Asia in the eighth century Arabic became the "new language for official communication and intellectual interchange".
[1]
However, the local groups - Sogdians, Khwarazmians, Khurasanis, Pamiris, Baktrians, or Tokharians - spoke Iranian languages.
[1]
"I suggest that much of the bureaucracy of the court of Bukhara was conducted in written Persian, while Persian was the "official" spoken language and Arabic was also used for more formal, for religious and for caliphal matters. In effect the Samanid bureaucracy was bilingual."
[2]
"By the tenth century, the majority of the various Iranian peoples of Khurasan, Transoxania and Khwarazm - Persians, Bactrians, Sogdians, Khwarazmians and others - were using the New Persian (Farsi-Dari) language as their spoken and written form of communication, although such Middle Iranian languages as Khwarazmian and Sogdian were still in use in certain regions - in the case of the former, for some four centuries subsequently."
[3]
"Ahmad b. Ismail (907-14), portrayed in the sources as a devout Muslim. He reinstated Arabic as the language of administration in place of Persian and favoured officials who knew Arabic"
[4]
[1]: (Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia’s Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton. [2]: (Frye 1975, 145) Frye, Richard Nelson. 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. [3]: (Negmatov 1997, 83) Negmatov, N N. in Asimov, M S and Bosworth, C E eds. 1997. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part I. UNESCO. [4]: (Negmatov 1997, 85) Negmatov, N N. in Asimov, M S and Bosworth, C E eds. 1997. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part I. UNESCO. |
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|
Sogdian until the ninth century: "The previous faiths of Zoroastrianism, Nestorian Christianity, Buddhism, and others almost entirely disappeared under Saminid rule, and Sogdian gradually gave way to Persian as the dominant tongue in the oasis cities."
[1]
"The Bactrian script and language were used for a long time after the Kushan age but only small fragments of Bactrian literary works have been discovered so far."
[2]
[1]: (Hanks 2010, 5) Hanks, R R. 2010. Global Security Watch-Central Asia. ABC-CLIO. [2]: (Harmatta 1994, 424) Harmatta, J. Languages and literature in the Kushan Empire. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing. |
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|
"Chagatai Turkish evolved as the language of the court and literature."
[1]
"Persian was the language of the bureaucratic administration and chancery correspondence"
[2]
The military administration, however, was "staffed by Turkic secretaries".
[2]
[1]: (Khan 2003, 35) Khan, A. 2003. A Historical Atlas of Uzbekistan. The Rosen Publishing Group. [2]: (Subtelny 2007, 69) Subtelny, Maria. 2007. Timurids in Transition: Turko-Persian Politics and Acculturation in Medieval Iran. BRILL. |
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|
The native language was Arabic: ’Yemenis speak the dialect of Arabic spoken in the region or urban center from which they originate. Regional variations in the pronunciation of certain Arabic phonemes (especially the phoneme /q/) differentiates the speech of northerners from southerners, for example. The speech pattern of Tihama residents is marked not only by dialectal variations but by characteristic accents, intonations, and inflections.’
[1]
[1]: Walters, Dolores M.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Yemenis |
||||||
|
"five major languages attested—Sabaʾic, Maʿīnic, Qatabānic, Ḥaḍramawtic, and Old Arabic"
[1]
[1]: (Robin 2015: 94) Robin, Christian Julien. 2015. “Before Himyar: Epigraphic Evidence for the Kingdoms of South Arabia.” In Arabs and Empires before Islam, edited by Greg Fisher, 91-126. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www-oxfordscholarship-com.ezp.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199654529.001.0001/acprof-9780199654529-chapter-3. |
||||||
|
"five major languages attested—Sabaʾic, Maʿīnic, Qatabānic, Ḥaḍramawtic, and Old Arabic"
[1]
[1]: (Robin 2015: 94) Robin, Christian Julien. 2015. “Before Himyar: Epigraphic Evidence for the Kingdoms of South Arabia.” In Arabs and Empires before Islam, edited by Greg Fisher, 91-126. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www-oxfordscholarship-com.ezp.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199654529.001.0001/acprof-9780199654529-chapter-3. |
||||||
|
"five major languages attested—Sabaʾic, Maʿīnic, Qatabānic, Ḥaḍramawtic, and Old Arabic"
[1]
[1]: (Robin 2015: 94) Robin, Christian Julien. 2015. “Before Himyar: Epigraphic Evidence for the Kingdoms of South Arabia.” In Arabs and Empires before Islam, edited by Greg Fisher, 91-126. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZMFH42PE. |
||||||
|
"five major languages attested—Sabaʾic, Maʿīnic, Qatabānic, Ḥaḍramawtic, and Old Arabic"
[1]
[1]: (Robin 2015: 94) Robin, Christian Julien. 2015. “Before Himyar: Epigraphic Evidence for the Kingdoms of South Arabia.” In Arabs and Empires before Islam, edited by Greg Fisher, 91-126. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZMFH42PE. |
||||||
|
"five major languages attested—Sabaʾic, Maʿīnic, Qatabānic, Ḥaḍramawtic, and Old Arabic"
[1]
[1]: (Robin 2015: 94) Robin, Christian Julien. 2015. “Before Himyar: Epigraphic Evidence for the Kingdoms of South Arabia.” In Arabs and Empires before Islam, edited by Greg Fisher, 91-126. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www-oxfordscholarship-com.ezp.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199654529.001.0001/acprof-9780199654529-chapter-3. |
||||||
|
"five major languages attested—Sabaʾic, Maʿīnic, Qatabānic, Ḥaḍramawtic, and Old Arabic"
[1]
[1]: (Robin 2015: 94) Robin, Christian Julien. 2015. “Before Himyar: Epigraphic Evidence for the Kingdoms of South Arabia.” In Arabs and Empires before Islam, edited by Greg Fisher, 91-126. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www-oxfordscholarship-com.ezp.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199654529.001.0001/acprof-9780199654529-chapter-3. |
||||||
|
"five major languages attested—Sabaʾic, Maʿīnic, Qatabānic, Ḥaḍramawtic, and Old Arabic"
[1]
[1]: (Robin 2015: 94) Robin, Christian Julien. 2015. “Before Himyar: Epigraphic Evidence for the Kingdoms of South Arabia.” In Arabs and Empires before Islam, edited by Greg Fisher, 91-126. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www-oxfordscholarship-com.ezp.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199654529.001.0001/acprof-9780199654529-chapter-3. |
||||||
|
"They spoke Susu (Yalunka), Maninka (including Koranko), Bambara (Bamana), Sarakuli (Soninke), and other Northern Mande tongues. [...] They could link themselves with people speaking such languages as Temne, Bullom, Limba, or Loko - people whose ancestors had been long resident in the area - or with Hal Pular or other Mande- speaking immigrants, either those who were well established or recent arrivals."
[1]
[1]: (Howard 2000: 13) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/QEAVXXT2/collection. |
||||||
|
"They spoke Susu (Yalunka), Maninka (including Koranko), Bambara (Bamana), Sarakuli (Soninke), and other Northern Mande tongues. [...] They could link themselves with people speaking such languages as Temne, Bullom, Limba, or Loko - people whose ancestors had been long resident in the area - or with Hal Pular or other Mande- speaking immigrants, either those who were well established or recent arrivals."
[1]
[1]: (Howard 2000: 13) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/QEAVXXT2/collection. |
||||||
|
"They spoke Susu (Yalunka), Maninka (including Koranko), Bambara (Bamana), Sarakuli (Soninke), and other Northern Mande tongues. [...] They could link themselves with people speaking such languages as Temne, Bullom, Limba, or Loko - people whose ancestors had been long resident in the area - or with Hal Pular or other Mande- speaking immigrants, either those who were well established or recent arrivals."
[1]
[1]: (Howard 2000: 13) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/QEAVXXT2/collection. |
||||||
|
"They spoke Susu (Yalunka), Maninka (including Koranko), Bambara (Bamana), Sarakuli (Soninke), and other Northern Mande tongues. [...] They could link themselves with people speaking such languages as Temne, Bullom, Limba, or Loko - people whose ancestors had been long resident in the area - or with Hal Pular or other Mande- speaking immigrants, either those who were well established or recent arrivals."
[1]
[1]: (Howard 2000: 13) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/QEAVXXT2/collection. |
||||||
|
"By the beginning of the sixteenth century all the inhabitants between Cape Verga and Cape Mount could speak either Temne or Bullom, and apparently no Sape had difficulty in communicating with any other Sape."
[1]
[1]: (Rodney 1967: 219) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/G8G96NVQ/collection. |
||||||
|
"They spoke Susu (Yalunka), Maninka (including Koranko), Bambara (Bamana), Sarakuli (Soninke), and other Northern Mande tongues. [...] They could link themselves with people speaking such languages as Temne, Bullom, Limba, or Loko - people whose ancestors had been long resident in the area - or with Hal Pular or other Mande- speaking immigrants, either those who were well established or recent arrivals."
[1]
[1]: (Howard 2000: 13) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/QEAVXXT2/collection. |
||||||
|
"They spoke Susu (Yalunka), Maninka (including Koranko), Bambara (Bamana), Sarakuli (Soninke), and other Northern Mande tongues. [...] They could link themselves with people speaking such languages as Temne, Bullom, Limba, or Loko - people whose ancestors had been long resident in the area - or with Hal Pular or other Mande- speaking immigrants, either those who were well established or recent arrivals."
[1]
[1]: (Howard 2000: 13) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/QEAVXXT2/collection. |
||||||
|
"They spoke Susu (Yalunka), Maninka (including Koranko), Bambara (Bamana), Sarakuli (Soninke), and other Northern Mande tongues. [...] They could link themselves with people speaking such languages as Temne, Bullom, Limba, or Loko - people whose ancestors had been long resident in the area - or with Hal Pular or other Mande- speaking immigrants, either those who were well established or recent arrivals."
[1]
[1]: (Howard 2000: 13) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/QEAVXXT2/collection. |
||||||
|
""In southern Senegambia, where non-Manding populations predominated, Manding was a prestigious language of the pagan aristocracy and, on the other hand, the language of the Muslim merchant network of Jakhanke."
[1]
[1]: (Vydrin 2014: 201) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/E8Z57DNC/collection. |
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|
English was the "official" language, Krio developed as the lingua franca shared by the majority. " The communication pattern which emerged developed under the ‘supervision’ of the English authorities who insisted on their own values and language, which also quickly became the criteria for advancement. For those who could readily communicate with the colonial establishment, there was an increased chance of obtaining contracts and jobs as carpenters, masons, washer women, domestic servants and so on. These were the ‘plum’ jobs of the time in the early colony, carrying with them a consequent social prestige and status. For this reason therefore, English, and variants of it, which perforce developed among the Settlers and recaptives, became an ‘official’ means of contact. But most of the Settlers and recaptives had at best only a smattering of English, used when necessary. The Nova Scotians had elements of what became Black American English as spoken in the southern United States, mostly in the rural areas where the blacks were largely found. But the Nova Scotians were few to start with, as many of them died in an unfamiliar climate and environment. The individual languages of the recaptives, who comprised the vast majority, persisted but did not provide a means of inter-group communication. Against this background developed a language system [called Krio] using mostly English derived words, but having a syntax based almost entirely on the African languages from which it drew support (Fyle and Jones 1980)."
[1]
[1]: (Fyle 1993: 45) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/34MHK5T2/collection. |
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English was the "official" language, Krio developed as the lingua franca shared by the majority. " The communication pattern which emerged developed under the ‘supervision’ of the English authorities who insisted on their own values and language, which also quickly became the criteria for advancement. For those who could readily communicate with the colonial establishment, there was an increased chance of obtaining contracts and jobs as carpenters, masons, washer women, domestic servants and so on. These were the ‘plum’ jobs of the time in the early colony, carrying with them a consequent social prestige and status. For this reason therefore, English, and variants of it, which perforce developed among the Settlers and recaptives, became an ‘official’ means of contact. But most of the Settlers and recaptives had at best only a smattering of English, used when necessary. The Nova Scotians had elements of what became Black American English as spoken in the southern United States, mostly in the rural areas where the blacks were largely found. But the Nova Scotians were few to start with, as many of them died in an unfamiliar climate and environment. The individual languages of the recaptives, who comprised the vast majority, persisted but did not provide a means of inter-group communication. Against this background developed a language system [called Krio] using mostly English derived words, but having a syntax based almost entirely on the African languages from which it drew support (Fyle and Jones 1980)."
[1]
[1]: (Fyle 1993: 45) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/34MHK5T2/collection. |
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"In the field of religion and culture, the nineteenth century is said to have witnessed the golden age of Islam in the Futa Jalon. [...] All this seems to have been facilitated by the use of the local language, Pular, as a medium of teaching and popularization of Islamic rules and doctrine."
[1]
[1]: (Barry 2005: 539) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/SU25S5BX/items/6TXWGHAX/item-list |
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"By the beginning of the sixteenth century all the inhabitants between Cape Verga and Cape Mount could speak either Temne or Bullom, and apparently no Sape had difficulty in communicating with any other Sape."
[1]
[1]: (Rodney 1967: 219) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/G8G96NVQ/collection. |
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Identified by Huffman as the language of this polity, as well as of other peoples in the region, such as its predecessor state of Mapungubwe. “The people at Great Zimbabwe and Mapungubwe spoke related forms of the Shona language, but they belonged to separate ethno-historical groups.”
[1]
[1]: (Huffman 2008; 37) Thomas N. Huffman, “Mapungubwe and Great Zimbabwe: The origin and spread of social complexity in Southern Africa,” in Journal of Anthropological Archaeology Vol. 28 (2008): 37-54. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/KSNS25TG/collection |
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The Rozvi are identified as Karanga and Kalanga, and the Torwa as likely so as well. “the Rozvi were a mixed and dynamic group of Karanga and Kalanga people of several totems.”
[1]
. “….occupiers of Khami perceived of themselves as Kalanga… although further linguistic research may still need to be done to establish whether the Torwa people indeed spoke Kalanga apart from perceiving themselves as such.”
[2]
.
[1]: (Machiridza 2008, 1) Lesley Machiridza, “Developing the Rozvi Archaeological Identity in Southwestern Zimbabwe,” in Zimbabwean Prehistory Vol. 28 (2008). Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2XKVR72R/item-details [2]: (Mazarire 2003, 5) Gerald Mazarire, “Who are the Ndebele and Kalanga in Zimbabwe?” … conference paper (2003). Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MDRUT5SN/item-list |
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Clearly identified as such, including by their connection with Great Zimbabwe. “The founders of the Mutapa Empire were of the Shona group and were both culturally and politically connected to the builders of the Great Zimbabwe.”
[1]
[1]: (Ngara 2013, 4) Emmanuel Ngara, “Transformational Leadership and Traditional African Leadership Practice,” (Harare: Zimbabwe Council for Higher Education, 2013). Accessed through Institute of Development Studies OpenDocs. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ATPBED62/item-details |
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“The Pandyan dynasty [...] were based in the dry upland interior of the Tamil-speaking region.”
[1]
[1]: (Fisher 2018, 74) Fisher, Michael H. 2018. An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/MIEG8XAK/collection |
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Also known as Sinhalese. “Sinhalese oral histories about the peopling of Sri Lanka suggest that north India ruling castes migrated to Sri Lanka around the sixth century BCE and that was the origin of Sinhalese speakers in Sri Lanka today.”
[1]
“Sinhalese as a distinct language and script developed rapidly under the joint stimuli of Pāli and Buddhism. Indeed it would be true to say that the art of writing came to Sri Lanka with Buddhism. By the second century AD Sinhalese was being used to literary purposes, and thereafter a body of religious writing explaining the Pāli canon was accumulated, primarily for the purpose of conveying its ideas to those not conversant with Pāli. The Sinhalese language was also enriched by translations from Pāli. But Pāli did not remain for long the only or even the dominant influence on Sinhalese. Sanskrit, the language of the Mahāyānist and Hindu scriptures, which was richer in idiom, vocabulary and vitality, left a strong impression on the Sinhalese language in the later centuries of the Anurādhapura era. There was also a considerable Tamil influences on the vocabulary, idiom and grammatical structure of Sinhalese.”
[2]
[1]: (Schug and Walimbe 2016, 582) Schug, Gwen Robbins, and Subhash R. Walimbe. 2016. A Companion to South Asia in the Past, 2016. Somerset: Wiley. Seshat URL:https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/7MXIBSHQ/collection [2]: (De Silva, 1981, 58) De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4R6DQVHZ/collection |
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“One of the distinctive features of the literature of the Polonnaruva period was the continued vitality of Pāli as the language of Sinhalese Buddhism. The tradition was still very much in favour of writing in Pāli rather than Sinhalese. The Pāli works of this period were mainly expositions or summaries of the works of the Pāli canon. There were also the tīkās explaining and supplementing the commentaries composed in the Anurādhapura era. The Dāṭhavaṁsa, a history of the tooth relic, was one of the more notable literary in the Pāli language. Its author, Mahānāma, is also credited with the first part Cūlavaṁsa, the continuation of the Mahāvaṁsa. The Pāli literature of this period bears the impression of the strong tonic effect of Sanskrit, which had not a no less significant influence on contemporary Sinhalese writing. The bulk of the Sinhalese works of this period are glossaries and translations from the Pāli canon. There were also two prose works by a thirteenth century author, Gurulugomi, the Amāvatura and the Dharmapradīpikāva, of which the former was more noteworthy; and two poems (of the late twelfth and early thirteenth century), the Sasadāvata and the Muvadevadāta, both based on Jātaka stories, and both greatly influenced by the Sanskrit works of Kālidāsa and Kumāradāsa.”
[1]
“The Tamil influence in Ceylon during the 86 years preceding the accession of Vijaya Báhu under the rule of the Chóla kings must have been to permeating that when Vijaya Báhu became king his environments and surroundings would have been practically Tamil. Is it therefore no matter for surprise that the Véḷaikkára army composed altogether of Tamils, should have caused the inscription to be inscribed in Tamil and in the Maṇipraváḷam style.”
[2]
[1]: (De Silva 1981, 74) De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4R6DQVHZ/collection [2]: (Mudaliyár 1924, 267) Mudaliyár, C. Rásanáyagam. 1924. ‘Vitaya Bahu’s Inscription at Polonnaruwa.’ The Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland, Vol. 29: 77. Pp 226-280. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/AWEGBR4C/collection |
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“Access to asraar (sacred mysteries) was commonly associated with the saints’ ability, however rudimentary, to read and write Arabic. With these gifts, the saints were enabled not only to perceive the forces of the supernatural world but also, in a limited sense, to control them.”
[1]
“The language is Cushitic, and is related (as are, of course, the Somalis themselves) to Arabic…”
[2]
[1]: (Cassanelli 1982, 124) Cassanelli, Lee. V. 1982. The Shaping of Somali Society: Reconstructing the History of a Pastoral People, 1600-1900. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKPH7Z89/library [2]: (Irons 2013, 3) Irons, Roy. 2013. Churchill and the Mad Mullah of Somaliland: Betrayal and Redemption 1899-1921. Barnsley: Pen and Sword Military. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/R4RVAR38/collection |
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“One of the distinctive features of the literature of the Polonnaruva period was the continued vitality of Pāli as the language of Sinhalese Buddhism. The tradition was still very much in favour of writing in Pāli rather than Sinhalese. The Pāli works of this period were mainly expositions or summaries of the works of the Pāli canon. There were also the tīkās explaining and supplementing the commentaries composed in the Anurādhapura era. The Dāṭhavaṁsa, a history of the tooth relic, was one of the more notable literary in the Pāli language. Its author, Mahānāma, is also credited with the first part Cūlavaṁsa, the continuation of the Mahāvaṁsa. The Pāli literature of this period bears the impression of the strong tonic effect of Sanskrit, which had not a no less significant influence on contemporary Sinhalese writing. The bulk of the Sinhalese works of this period are glossaries and translations from the Pāli canon. There were also two prose works by a thirteenth century author, Gurulugomi, the Amāvatura and the Dharmapradīpikāva, of which the former was more noteworthy; and two poems (of the late twelfth and early thirteenth century), the Sasadāvata and the Muvadevadāta, both based on Jātaka stories, and both greatly influenced by the Sanskrit works of Kālidāsa and Kumāradāsa.”
[1]
“The Tamil influence in Ceylon during the 86 years preceding the accession of Vijaya Báhu under the rule of the Chóla kings must have been to permeating that when Vijaya Báhu became king his environments and surroundings would have been practically Tamil. Is it therefore no matter for surprise that the Véḷaikkára army composed altogether of Tamils, should have caused the inscription to be inscribed in Tamil and in the Maṇipraváḷam style.”
[2]
[1]: (De Silva 1981, 74) De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4R6DQVHZ/collection [2]: (Mudaliyár 1924, 267) Mudaliyár, C. Rásanáyagam. 1924. ‘Vitaya Bahu’s Inscription at Polonnaruwa.’ The Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland, Vol. 29: 77. Pp 226-280. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/AWEGBR4C/collection |
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Also known as Sinhalese. “Sinhalese oral histories about the peopling of Sri Lanka suggest that north India ruling castes migrated to Sri Lanka around the sixth century BCE and that was the origin of Sinhalese speakers in Sri Lanka today.”
[1]
“Sinhalese as a distinct language and script developed rapidly under the joint stimuli of Pāli and Buddhism. Indeed it would be true to say that the art of writing came to Sri Lanka with Buddhism. By the second century AD Sinhalese was being used to literary purposes, and thereafter a body of religious writing explaining the Pāli canon was accumulated, primarily for the purpose of conveying its ideas to those not conversant with Pāli. The Sinhalese language was also enriched by translations from Pāli. But Pāli did not remain for long the only or even the dominant influence on Sinhalese. Sanskrit, the language of the Mahāyānist and Hindu scriptures, which was richer in idiom, vocabulary and vitality, left a strong impression on the Sinhalese language in the later centuries of the Anurādhapura era. There was also a considerable Tamil influences on the vocabulary, idiom and grammatical structure of Sinhalese.”
[2]
[1]: (Schug and Walimbe 2016, 582) Schug, Gwen Robbins, and Subhash R. Walimbe. 2016. A Companion to South Asia in the Past, 2016. Somerset: Wiley. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/7MXIBSHQ/collection [2]: (De Silva, 1981, 58) De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4R6DQVHZ/collection |
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Also known as Sinhalese. “Sinhalese oral histories about the peopling of Sri Lanka suggest that north India ruling castes migrated to Sri Lanka around the sixth century BCE and that was the origin of Sinhalese speakers in Sri Lanka today.”
[1]
[1]: (Schug and Walimbe 2016, 582) Schug, Gwen Robbins, and Subhash R. Walimbe. 2016. A Companion to South Asia in the Past, 2016. Somerset: Wiley. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/7MXIBSHQ/collection |
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"The island for the first time was divided into a Sinhala-speaking southeast and a Tamil-speaking northwest."
[1]
"The Yalppanavaipavamalai emphasizes that the kings had both Tamil and Sinhalese subjects, the latter sometimes rebellious."
[2]
[1]: (Peebles 2006: 27) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/HJG4VBC5/collection. [2]: (Peebles 2006: 32) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/HJG4VBC5/collection. |
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"The island for the first time was divided into a Sinhala-speaking southeast and a Tamil-speaking northwest."
[1]
"The Yalppanavaipavamalai emphasizes that the kings had both Tamil and Sinhalese subjects, the latter sometimes rebellious."
[2]
[1]: (Peebles 2006: 27) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/HJG4VBC5/collection. [2]: (Peebles 2006: 32) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/HJG4VBC5/collection. |
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Also known as Sinhalese. “Sinhalese oral histories about the peopling of Sri Lanka suggest that north India ruling castes migrated to Sri Lanka around the sixth century BCE and that was the origin of Sinhalese speakers in Sri Lanka today.”
[1]
“Sinhalese as a distinct language and script developed rapidly under the joint stimuli of Pāli and Buddhism. Indeed it would be true to say that the art of writing came to Sri Lanka with Buddhism. By the second century AD Sinhalese was being used to literary purposes, and thereafter a body of religious writing explaining the Pāli canon was accumulated, primarily for the purpose of conveying its ideas to those not conversant with Pāli. The Sinhalese language was also enriched by translations from Pāli. But Pāli did not remain for long the only or even the dominant influence on Sinhalese. Sanskrit, the language of the Mahāyānist and Hindu scriptures, which was richer in idiom, vocabulary and vitality, left a strong impression on the Sinhalese language in the later centuries of the Anurādhapura era. There was also a considerable Tamil influences on the vocabulary, idiom and grammatical structure of Sinhalese.”
[2]
[1]: (Schug and Walimbe 2016, 582) Schug, Gwen Robbins, and Subhash R. Walimbe. 2016. A Companion to South Asia in the Past, 2016. Somerset: Wiley. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/7MXIBSHQ/collection [2]: (De Silva, 1981, 58) De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4R6DQVHZ/collection |
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“The Galla language (afan Oromo) is an unwritten one and has never been standardized for scholarly work or other publication purposes.”
[1]
[1]: (Lewis 2001, xviii) Lewis, Herbert S. 2001. Jimma Abba Jifar, an Oromo Monarchy: Ethiopia, 1830-1932. Lawrenceville, New Jersey: The Red Sea Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/NRZVWSCD/collection |
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Before Harar became the Adalite capital in the early fourteenth century, it was still an important trading town in the Adal Sultanate interior. “Some of the Arabic inscriptions on tombstones collected between the modern towns of Harar and Dire Dawa bear thirteenth-century dates, and show the existence of fairly well-developed Muslim communities in the region of Harar, which probably was an important centre of dispersal for many of the founders of other Muslim settlements further inland.”
[1]
Not only was Arabic spoken in the region, but local Ethio-Semitic languages were also used. “Again, the names of the princes in the Arabic documents published by Enrico Cerulli regarding the early Sultanate of Shoa and the Walasma dynasty of both Ifat and Adal, indicate that some sort of Ethio-Semitic was spoken by the early Muslims in these areas. The implication of all this is that early Islam, in the Shoan region at least, had its first roots among the Ethio-Semitic speakers of the area, who later formed and ran the sultanate of Shoa and consequently the Walasma Kingdoms of Ifat and Adal.”
[2]
“But the fourteenth-century rise of a Walasma dynasty in the Harar region, led by large numbers of people who were clearly of Ifat origin, must have had a considerable role to play in the planting and development, in and around Harar of the communities speaking Harari and Argobba – both of which belong, with Amharic, as we have seen earlier, to what is currently called Transversal South Ethio-Semitic.”
[3]
[1]: (Tamrat 2008, 140) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list [2]: (Tamrat 2008, 147) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list [3]: (Tamrat 2008, 150) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list |
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Before Harar became the Adalite capital in the early fourteenth century, it was still an important trading town in the Adal Sultanate interior. “Some of the Arabic inscriptions on tombstones collected between the modern towns of Harar and Dire Dawa bear thirteenth-century dates, and show the existence of fairly well-developed Muslim communities in the region of Harar, which probably was an important centre of dispersal for many of the founders of other Muslim settlements further inland.”
[1]
Not only was Arabic spoken in the region, but local Ethio-Semitic languages were also used. “Again, the names of the princes in the Arabic documents published by Enrico Cerulli regarding the early Sultanate of Shoa and the Walasma dynasty of both Ifat and Adal, indicate that some sort of Ethio-Semitic was spoken by the early Muslims in these areas. The implication of all this is that early Islam, in the Shoan region at least, had its first roots among the Ethio-Semitic speakers of the area, who later formed and ran the sultanate of Shoa and consequently the Walasma Kingdoms of Ifat and Adal.”
[2]
“But the fourteenth-century rise of a Walasma dynasty in the Harar region, led by large numbers of people who were clearly of Ifat origin, must have had a considerable role to play in the planting and development, in and around Harar of the communities speaking Harari and Argobba – both of which belong, with Amharic, as we have seen earlier, to what is currently called Transversal South Ethio-Semitic.”
[3]
[1]: (Tamrat 2008, 140) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list [2]: (Tamrat 2008, 147) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list [3]: (Tamrat 2008, 150) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list |
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Before Harar became the Adalite capital in the early fourteenth century, it was still an important trading town in the Adal Sultanate interior. “Some of the Arabic inscriptions on tombstones collected between the modern towns of Harar and Dire Dawa bear thirteenth-century dates, and show the existence of fairly well-developed Muslim communities in the region of Harar, which probably was an important centre of dispersal for many of the founders of other Muslim settlements further inland.”
[1]
Not only was Arabic spoken in the region, but local Ethio-Semitic languages were also used. “Again, the names of the princes in the Arabic documents published by Enrico Cerulli regarding the early Sultanate of Shoa and the Walasma dynasty of both Ifat and Adal, indicate that some sort of Ethio-Semitic was spoken by the early Muslims in these areas. The implication of all this is that early Islam, in the Shoan region at least, had its first roots among the Ethio-Semitic speakers of the area, who later formed and ran the sultanate of Shoa and consequently the Walasma Kingdoms of Ifat and Adal.”
[2]
“But the fourteenth-century rise of a Walasma dynasty in the Harar region, led by large numbers of people who were clearly of Ifat origin, must have had a considerable role to play in the planting and development, in and around Harar of the communities speaking Harari and Argobba – both of which belong, with Amharic, as we have seen earlier, to what is currently called Transversal South Ethio-Semitic.”
[3]
[1]: (Tamrat 2008, 140) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list [2]: (Tamrat 2008, 147) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list [3]: (Tamrat 2008, 150) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list |
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In Barawa (also known as Brava) on the Benadir coast, there are various examples of Arabic inscriptions from the early 12th Century. “Cerulli reports an Arabic inscription from Brava, commemorating the death of a Muslim resident in 1104/5, which certainly indicates the existence of a highly developed Muslim community there in the eleventh century.”
[1]
Also spoken on the Benadir coast is the Af-Maay language. “Known also as ‘Maaymaay’ or ‘Maayteri’ or Af-Reewin. The language of most Somalis south of the Shabelle valley, in the Middle and Lower Shabelle regions, Bakook, Bay, Gedo, Middle and most of Lower Juba regions, and most of Banadir.”
[2]
[1]: (Tamrat 2008, 137) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/search/tam/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list [2]: (Mukhtar 2003, 30) Mukhtar, Mohamed H. 2003. Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/J8WZB6VI/collection |
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In Barawa (also known as Brava) on the Benadir coast, there are various examples of Arabic inscriptions from the early 12th Century. “Cerulli reports an Arabic inscription from Brava, commemorating the death of a Muslim resident in 1104/5, which certainly indicates the existence of a highly developed Muslim community there in the eleventh century.”
[1]
Also spoken on the Benadir coast is the Af-Maay language. “Known also as ‘Maaymaay’ or ‘Maayteri’ or Af-Reewin. The language of most Somalis south of the Shabelle valley, in the Middle and Lower Shabelle regions, Bakook, Bay, Gedo, Middle and most of Lower Juba regions, and most of Banadir.”
[2]
[1]: (Tamrat 2008, 137) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/search/tam/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list [2]: (Mukhtar 2003, 30) Mukhtar, Mohamed H. 2003. Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/J8WZB6VI/collection |
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“The Harari language is Semitic and close to east Gurage.”
[1]
“The country is populated by several Oromo-speaking tribes and the Argobba, who nowadays speak Oromo, too.”
[2]
[1]: (Shinn and Ofcansky 2013, 208) Shinn, David and Thomas Ofcansky. 2013. Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/29MS79PA/collection [2]: (Wagner 1997, 486) Wagner, Ewald. 1997. ‘Harari’ In The Semitic Languages. Edited by Robert Hetzron. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/V9HWX5VP/collection |
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|
“Access to asraar (sacred mysteries) was commonly associated with the saints’ ability, however rudimentary, to read and write Arabic. With these gifts, the saints were enabled not only to perceive the forces of the supernatural world but also, in a limited sense, to control them.”
[1]
“The language is Cushitic, and is related (as are, of course, the Somalis themselves) to Arabic…”
[2]
[1]: (Cassanelli 1982, 124) Cassanelli, Lee. V. 1982. The Shaping of Somali Society: Reconstructing the History of a Pastoral People, 1600-1900. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKPH7Z89/library [2]: (Irons 2013, 3) Irons, Roy. 2013. Churchill and the Mad Mullah of Somaliland: Betrayal and Redemption 1899-1921. Barnsley: Pen and Sword Military. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/R4RVAR38/collection |
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|
“Access to asraar (sacred mysteries) was commonly associated with the saints’ ability, however rudimentary, to read and write Arabic. With these gifts, the saints were enabled not only to perceive the forces of the supernatural world but also, in a limited sense, to control them.”
[1]
“The Hawiye of this area speak the Benadir dialect. The Geledi speak Digil; in common parlance the two speeches are designated by their respective phrases for ‘what did you say’?- mahaa tiri and may tiri. Digil is generally just known as may-may, which in the mouth of a speaker of another dialect has a tone of mockery, amiable or otherwise.”
[2]
[1]: (Cassanelli 1982, 124) Cassanelli, Lee. V. 1982. The Shaping of Somali Society: Reconstructing the History of a Pastoral People, 1600-1900. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKPH7Z89/library [2]: (Luling 1971, 41) Luling, Virginia. 1971. The Social Structure of Southern Somali Tribes. (Thesis). University of London (University College London). Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/5BTAQ3DM/collection |
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|
“Access to asraar (sacred mysteries) was commonly associated with the saints’ ability, however rudimentary, to read and write Arabic. With these gifts, the saints were enabled not only to perceive the forces of the supernatural world but also, in a limited sense, to control them.”
[1]
“The Hawiye of this area speak the Benadir dialect. The Geledi speak Digil; in common parlance the two speeches are designated by their respective phrases for ‘what did you say’?- mahaa tiri and may tiri. Digil is generally just known as may-may, which in the mouth of a speaker of another dialect has a tone of mockery, amiable or otherwise.”
[2]
[1]: (Cassanelli 1982, 124) Cassanelli, Lee. V. 1982. The Shaping of Somali Society: Reconstructing the History of a Pastoral People, 1600-1900. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKPH7Z89/library [2]: (Luling 1971, 41) Luling, Virginia. 1971. The Social Structure of Southern Somali Tribes. (Thesis). University of London (University College London). Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/5BTAQ3DM/collection |
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|
"The precise use of the Islamic calendar and of Arabic script and language are strong evidence of the presence of an Islamic scholarly elite. This literate elite is represented by the faqīh Ibrāhīm b. al-Ḥasan, “ qāḍī al-quḍā (lit. “cadi of the cadis”) of Šawah” whose death occurred in 1255. The title “cadi of the cadis” refers to the judge at the head of the judiciary of a state or of a city, and therefore presupposes a sophisticated judicial hierarchy."
[1]
“A local Arabic chronicle, edited and translated by Enrico Cerulli in 1941, preserves the tradition that the first Mahzumite prince of the so-called ’sultanate of Shoa’ began to rule in the last decade of the ninth century [...] Despite the above tradition of the chronicle, it is improbable that the state was actually formed as early as the ninth century.”
[2]
“Then, in the year 1108, it is reported that there took place ‘the conversion of Gbbah’ to Islam, in the reign of Sultan Harab’ir. It has not been possible to give a secure identification of the area (or people) called Gbbah. But Trimingham has recently made an interesting suggestion that the term may refer to a people who were probably ancestral to those later known as Argobba. This is a very tempting suggestion and, geographically, it makes very good sense. The Argobba were a Semitic-speaking group who lived in the eastern foothills of the Shoan plateau in the Harar area. Their Semitic language also makes them a very good candidate for the proposed identification, because an analysis of the names of the princes in the chronical has also convinced Cerulli that an Ethiopian Semitic language was spoke in the Sultanate of Shoa.”
[3]
[1]: (Chekroun and Hirsch 2020: 94-95) Seshat url: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/SU25S5BX/items/TA84VGHX/item-list [2]: (Tamrat 2008, 106) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list [3]: (Tamrat 2008, 107) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list |
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|
"The precise use of the Islamic calendar and of Arabic script and language are strong evidence of the presence of an Islamic scholarly elite. This literate elite is represented by the faqīh Ibrāhīm b. al-Ḥasan, “ qāḍī al-quḍā (lit. “cadi of the cadis”) of Šawah” whose death occurred in 1255. The title “cadi of the cadis” refers to the judge at the head of the judiciary of a state or of a city, and therefore presupposes a sophisticated judicial hierarchy."
[1]
“A local Arabic chronicle, edited and translated by Enrico Cerulli in 1941, preserves the tradition that the first Mahzumite prince of the so-called ’sultanate of Shoa’ began to rule in the last decade of the ninth century [...] Despite the above tradition of the chronicle, it is improbable that the state was actually formed as early as the ninth century.”
[2]
“Then, in the year 1108, it is reported that there took place ‘the conversion of Gbbah’ to Islam, in the reign of Sultan Harab’ir. It has not been possible to give a secure identification of the area (or people) called Gbbah. But Trimingham has recently made an interesting suggestion that the term may refer to a people who were probably ancestral to those later known as Argobba. This is a very tempting suggestion and, geographically, it makes very good sense. The Argobba were a Semitic-speaking group who lived in the eastern foothills of the Shoan plateau in the Harar area. Their Semitic language also makes them a very good candidate for the proposed identification, because an analysis of the names of the princes in the chronical has also convinced Cerulli that an Ethiopian Semitic language was spoke in the Sultanate of Shoa.”
[3]
[1]: (Chekroun and Hirsch 2020: 94-95) Seshat url: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/SU25S5BX/items/TA84VGHX/item-list [2]: (Tamrat 2008, 106) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list [3]: (Tamrat 2008, 107) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list |
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|
“The Afars are a Cushitic-speaking people who call their language Cafaraf. It is classified along with Somali and Afan Oromo with the lowland east Cushitic language.”
[1]
[1]: (Shinn and Ofcansky 2013, 26-27) Shinn, David and Thomas Ofcansky. 2013. Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/29MS79PA/collection |
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|
Arab historians clearly state that inheritance of Ifat spoke Arabic and local languages. “This seems to be clear from al-‘Umari’s description of Ifat, whose language he tells us was ‘Abyssinian’ and ‘Arabic.’”
[1]
“In the fourteenth century, the Arab historian al-‘Umari also tells us that a local Semitic language was spoken in the Kingdom of Ifat, which, as we shall see, later replaced the sultanate of Shoa.”
[2]
[1]: (Tamrat 2008, 146) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list [2]: (Tamrat 2008, 107) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list |
||||||
|
"The precise use of the Islamic calendar and of Arabic script and language are strong evidence of the presence of an Islamic scholarly elite. This literate elite is represented by the faqīh Ibrāhīm b. al-Ḥasan, “ qāḍī al-quḍā (lit. “cadi of the cadis”) of Šawah” whose death occurred in 1255. The title “cadi of the cadis” refers to the judge at the head of the judiciary of a state or of a city, and therefore presupposes a sophisticated judicial hierarchy."
[1]
“A local Arabic chronicle, edited and translated by Enrico Cerulli in 1941, preserves the tradition that the first Mahzumite prince of the so-called ’sultanate of Shoa’ began to rule in the last decade of the ninth century [...] Despite the above tradition of the chronicle, it is improbable that the state was actually formed as early as the ninth century.”
[2]
“Then, in the year 1108, it is reported that there took place ‘the conversion of Gbbah’ to Islam, in the reign of Sultan Harab’ir. It has not been possible to give a secure identification of the area (or people) called Gbbah. But Trimingham has recently made an interesting suggestion that the term may refer to a people who were probably ancestral to those later known as Argobba. This is a very tempting suggestion and, geographically, it makes very good sense. The Argobba were a Semitic-speaking group who lived in the eastern foothills of the Shoan plateau in the Harar area. Their Semitic language also makes them a very good candidate for the proposed identification, because an analysis of the names of the princes in the chronical has also convinced Cerulli that an Ethiopian Semitic language was spoke in the Sultanate of Shoa.”
[3]
[1]: (Chekroun and Hirsch 2020: 94-95) Seshat url: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/SU25S5BX/items/TA84VGHX/item-list [2]: (Tamrat 2008, 106) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list [3]: (Tamrat 2008, 107) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list |
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“The Harla were Semitic-speaking people, who lived in the region of Harargue as early as the tenth century. They were sedentary farmers, town dwellers, merchants and great warriors, who provided leadership for the jihadic war of the sixteenth century, including Imam Ahmad and several other prominent generals.”
[1]
“A Muslim community was also indicated by the recovery of 2 undated Arabic inscriptions, one part on an inscription from the Quran 48:31-1, which if complete would read ‘In the name of the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful’ and on the second line, ‘We have given you a glorious victory’, the other only bearing the words ‘on God’”.
[2]
[1]: (Hassen 2015, 145) Hassen, Mohammed. 2015. The Oromo and the Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia 1300-1700. Melton: James Curry. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/9HR4GK4D/collection [2]: (Insoll 2017, 209) Insoll, Timothy. 2017. ‘First Footsteps in Archaeology of Harar, Ethiopia’. Journal of Islamic Archaeology. Vol 4:2. Pp 189-215. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/VQ38B374/collection |
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“The Harla were Semitic-speaking people, who lived in the region of Harargue as early as the tenth century. They were sedentary farmers, town dwellers, merchants and great warriors, who provided leadership for the jihadic war of the sixteenth century, including Imam Ahmad and several other prominent generals.”
[1]
“A Muslim community was also indicated by the recovery of 2 undated Arabic inscriptions, one part on an inscription from the Quran 48:31-1, which if complete would read ‘In the name of the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful’ and on the second line, ‘We have given you a glorious victory’, the other only bearing the words ‘on God’”.
[2]
[1]: (Hassen 2015, 145) Hassen, Mohammed. 2015. The Oromo and the Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia 1300-1700. Melton: James Curry. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/9HR4GK4D/collection [2]: (Insoll 2017, 209) Insoll, Timothy. 2017. ‘First Footsteps in Archaeology of Harar, Ethiopia’. Journal of Islamic Archaeology. Vol 4:2. Pp 189-215. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/VQ38B374/collection |
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“Hadiyya is an east Cushitic language that has 82 percent lexical similarity with Libido, 56 percent with Kambaata, 54 percent with Alaba, and 53 percent with Sidamo.”
[1]
[1]: (Shinn and Ofcansky 2013, 201) Shinn, David and Thomas Ofcansky. 2013. Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/29MS79PA/collection |
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|
Arab historians clearly state that inheritance of Ifat spoke Arabic and local languages. “This seems to be clear from al-‘Umari’s description of Ifat, whose language he tells us was ‘Abyssinian’ and ‘Arabic.’”
[1]
“In the fourteenth century, the Arab historian al-‘Umari also tells us that a local Semitic language was spoken in the Kingdom of Ifat, which, as we shall see, later replaced the sultanate of Shoa.”
[2]
[1]: (Tamrat 2008, 146) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list [2]: (Tamrat 2008, 107) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list |
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|
Arab historians clearly state that inheritance of Ifat spoke Arabic and local languages. “This seems to be clear from al-‘Umari’s description of Ifat, whose language he tells us was ‘Abyssinian’ and ‘Arabic.’”
[1]
“In the fourteenth century, the Arab historian al-‘Umari also tells us that a local Semitic language was spoken in the Kingdom of Ifat, which, as we shall see, later replaced the sultanate of Shoa.”
[2]
[1]: (Tamrat 2008, 146) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list [2]: (Tamrat 2008, 107) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list |
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“The Madurai-ttalavaralarn, a Tamil work describes the history of the great Madurai Temple.”
[1]
“A Sanskrit epigraph mentions the name Madhurakavi who belonged to a family of doctors and was a minister under king Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan.”
[2]
[1]: (Kamlesh 2010, 598) Kamlesh, Kapur. 2010. ‘Pandya Dynasty’ In Portraits of a Nation: History of Ancient India. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/3TS5DCT6/collection [2]: (Kamlesh 2010, 599) Kamlesh, Kapur. 2010. ‘Pandya Dynasty’ In Portraits of a Nation: History of Ancient India. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/3TS5DCT6/collection |
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“The common language and culture of the Tigrinya-speaking people on both sides of the Mareb River was reinforced by continual population movement between the Eritrean and Tigray regions, with many Tigrayans immigrating to the Kebess during the medieval period and again in the Italian colonial period.”
[1]
[1]: (Connell and Killion 2011, 500) Connell, Dan and Killion, Tom. 2011. Historical Dictionary of Eritrea. Second Edition. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/24ZMGPAA/collection |
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In the Majeerteen Sultanate there were some individuals who could write in Arabic but most used Somali Cushitic languages. “They likewise worshipped Islamic saints from the Arabian Peninsula, intermarried, and sometimes used Arabic scripts, since Somali Cushitic remained oral.”
[1]
[1]: (Smith 2021, 41) Smith, Nicholas W.S. 2021. Colonial Chaos in the Southern Red Sea: A History of Violence from 1830 to the Twentieth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/K6HVJ7X4/collection |
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In the Majeerteen Sultanate there were some individuals who could write in Arabic but most used Somali Cushitic languages. “They likewise worshipped Islamic saints from the Arabian Peninsula, intermarried, and sometimes used Arabic scripts, since Somali Cushitic remained oral.”
[1]
[1]: (Smith 2021, 41) Smith, Nicholas W.S. 2021. Colonial Chaos in the Southern Red Sea: A History of Violence from 1830 to the Twentieth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/K6HVJ7X4/collection |
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“Its rulers were Muslim and used Arabic as the lingua franca of trade, though the court at Sinnar continued to speak Funj.”
[1]
[1]: (Lapidus 2002, 429) Lapidus, Ira M. 2002. A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/QW9XHCIW/collection |
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“Its rulers were Muslim and used Arabic as the lingua franca of trade, though the court at Sinnar continued to speak Funj.”
[1]
[1]: (Lapidus 2002, 429) Lapidus, Ira M. 2002. A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/QW9XHCIW/collection |
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“Since both Kafa and Janjero are West Cushitic languages, one need not assume a great migration of languages or peoples.”
[1]
“There had been those who - whatever opinions they held held regarding higher linguistic groupings - saw languages such as Kafa, Shinasha, Wolaitta, Zayse and Yemsa (nee Janjero) as part of a larger ’Cushitic’ family. And there had been those who saw these languages as something distinct. Fleming championed (and continues to champion) the latter viewpoint, and his arguments (Fleming, 19 69a, 1974, 1976a), together with those adduced by Lionel Bender (1971, 1975a), appeared to have won the day in securing the independence of Omotic.”
[2]
[1]: (Orent 1970, 271) Orent, Amnon. 1970. ‘Refocusing on the History of Kafa Prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes’. African Historical Studies. Vol. 3:2. Pp 263-293. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2A389XGK/collection [2]: (Hayward 2012: vii) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/9NVNC8GD/collection. |
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|
“Since both Kafa and Janjero are West Cushitic languages, one need not assume a great migration of languages or peoples.”
[1]
“There had been those who - whatever opinions they held held regarding higher linguistic groupings - saw languages such as Kafa, Shinasha, Wolaitta, Zayse and Yemsa (nee Janjero) as part of a larger ’Cushitic’ family. And there had been those who saw these languages as something distinct. Fleming championed (and continues to champion) the latter viewpoint, and his arguments (Fleming, 19 69a, 1974, 1976a), together with those adduced by Lionel Bender (1971, 1975a), appeared to have won the day in securing the independence of Omotic.”
[2]
[1]: (Orent 1970, 271) Orent, Amnon. 1970. ‘Refocusing on the History of Kafa Prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes’. African Historical Studies. Vol. 3:2. Pp 263-293. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2A389XGK/collection [2]: (Hayward 2012: vii) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/9NVNC8GD/collection. |
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“The Oromo are a Cushitic-speaking people who are related to the Konso, Afar, Somali, and Sidama among others. Until fairly recently, outsiders referred to them as Galla, a term the Oromo never used themselves.”
[1]
[1]: (Shinn and Ofcansky 2013, 318) Shinn, David and Thomas Ofcansky. 2013. Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/29MS79PA/collection |
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“The Harari language is Semitic and close to east Gurage.”
[1]
“The country is populated by several Oromo-speaking tribes and the Argobba, who nowadays speak Oromo, too.”
[2]
[1]: (Shinn and Ofcansky 2013, 208) Shinn, David and Thomas Ofcansky. 2013. Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/29MS79PA/collection [2]: (Wagner 1997, 486) Wagner, Ewald. 1997. ‘Harari’ In The Semitic Languages. Edited by Robert Hetzron. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/V9HWX5VP/collection |
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|
“Access to asraar (sacred mysteries) was commonly associated with the saints’ ability, however rudimentary, to read and write Arabic. With these gifts, the saints were enabled not only to perceive the forces of the supernatural world but also, in a limited sense, to control them.”
[1]
“The language is Cushitic, and is related (as are, of course, the Somalis themselves) to Arabic…”
[2]
[1]: (Cassanelli 1982, 124) Cassanelli, Lee. V. 1982. The Shaping of Somali Society: Reconstructing the History of a Pastoral People, 1600-1900. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKPH7Z89/library [2]: (Irons 2013, 3) Irons, Roy. 2013. Churchill and the Mad Mullah of Somaliland: Betrayal and Redemption 1899-1921. Barnsley: Pen and Sword Military. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/R4RVAR38/collection |
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“Access to asraar (sacred mysteries) was commonly associated with the saints’ ability, however rudimentary, to read and write Arabic. With these gifts, the saints were enabled not only to perceive the forces of the supernatural world but also, in a limited sense, to control them.”
[1]
“The language is Cushitic, and is related (as are, of course, the Somalis themselves) to Arabic…”
[2]
[1]: (Cassanelli 1982, 124) Cassanelli, Lee. V. 1982. The Shaping of Somali Society: Reconstructing the History of a Pastoral People, 1600-1900. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKPH7Z89/library [2]: (Irons 2013, 3) Irons, Roy. 2013. Churchill and the Mad Mullah of Somaliland: Betrayal and Redemption 1899-1921. Barnsley: Pen and Sword Military. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/R4RVAR38/collection |
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"However, this community of practice was not an ethnic nation. In fact, it was multilingual, encompassing several dialects of the Yorùbá language and the Bini (Edo) language, and it succeeded in absorbing the individuals and families from other cultural groups, such as the Nupe and Djerma, into its fold during the Classical period."
[1]
[1]: (Ogundiran 2020: 138) |
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"However, this community of practice was not an ethnic nation. In fact, it was multilingual, encompassing several dialects of the Yorùbá language and the Bini (Edo) language, and it succeeded in absorbing the individuals and families from other cultural groups, such as the Nupe and Djerma, into its fold during the Classical period."
[1]
[1]: (Ogundiran 2020: 138) |
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“[T]he Jukun speak a Benue-Congo language, with its linguistic relatives in central Nigeria and the Cross River area”
[1]
Many central Nigerian peoples have a tradition of an ancient migration ‘from Apa’, but in some of these cases, linguistic evidence makes a historic relationship very unlikely. The Idoma speak a Kwa language, related to Igala and Igbo, whereas Jukun is a Benue-Congo language.”
[1]
[1]: Isichei, E. (1997). A History of African Societies to 1870. Cambridge University Press: 235. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Z4GK27CI/collection |
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WALS uses term Ajagbe for this Benin-Togo area language, but it’s sometimes also referred to as Aja. “In this paper, as elsewhere (see Law and Asiwaju forthcoming), the term Aja will be given a comprehensive interpretation and will be held to cover the groups whose original homesteads are found mostly in the region between the Weme and the Volta rivers and generally south of latitude 9°N, who speak what are more or less dialects of the same Kwa language and whose traditional ruling classes profess a common origin usually traced to Tado. Apart from the nucleus, referred to by Newbury as ’Aja Proper’, who occupy the Mono River valley along the present Togo-Benin boundary, other important sub-groups are the Ewe of today’s Togo and Ghana; the Fon of ancient Allada, Agbome (Abomey), and Whydah or Hueda and the Gun of Porto Novo (new Allada).”
[1]
“Another reference suggests that in the seventeenth century, at the onset of Oyo’s imperial expansion, the Oyo language (or ’Yoruba proper’) was preferred for some purposes in Allada to the local Aja.”
[2]
[1]: Asiwaju, A. I. “The Aja-Speaking Peoples of Nigeria: A Note on Their Origins, Settlement and Cultural Adaptation up to 1945.” Africa: Journal of the International African Institute, vol. 49, no. 1, 1979, pp. 15–28: 16. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2XUNFSVW/collection [2]: Smith, Robert. “Peace and Palaver: International Relations in Pre-Colonial West Africa.” The Journal of African History, vol. 14, no. 4, 1973, pp. 599–621: 608. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/WIFJS3HN/collection |
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WALS uses term Ajagbe for this Benin-Togo area language, but it’s sometimes also referred to as Aja. “In this paper, as elsewhere (see Law and Asiwaju forthcoming), the term Aja will be given a comprehensive interpretation and will be held to cover the groups whose original homesteads are found mostly in the region between the Weme and the Volta rivers and generally south of latitude 9°N, who speak what are more or less dialects of the same Kwa language and whose traditional ruling classes profess a common origin usually traced to Tado. Apart from the nucleus, referred to by Newbury as ’Aja Proper’, who occupy the Mono River valley along the present Togo-Benin boundary, other important sub-groups are the Ewe of today’s Togo and Ghana; the Fon of ancient Allada, Agbome (Abomey), and Whydah or Hueda and the Gun of Porto Novo (new Allada).”
[1]
“Another reference suggests that in the seventeenth century, at the onset of Oyo’s imperial expansion, the Oyo language (or ’Yoruba proper’) was preferred for some purposes in Allada to the local Aja.”
[2]
[1]: Asiwaju, A. I. “The Aja-Speaking Peoples of Nigeria: A Note on Their Origins, Settlement and Cultural Adaptation up to 1945.” Africa: Journal of the International African Institute, vol. 49, no. 1, 1979, pp. 15–28: 16. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2XUNFSVW/collection [2]: Smith, Robert. “Peace and Palaver: International Relations in Pre-Colonial West Africa.” The Journal of African History, vol. 14, no. 4, 1973, pp. 599–621: 608. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/WIFJS3HN/collection |
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“Telugu was the court language of the Nayaks, and in the Martha period, the favoured language for music.”
[1]
[1]: (Chakravarthy 2016, 80) Chakravarthy, Pradeep. 2016. ‘Thanjavur’s Sarasvati Muhal Library’ India International Centre Quarterly. Vol. 42:3/4. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/CU6HMURQ/collection |
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“[T]he application of the name Yoruba to this large group is a modern usage, strictly anachronistic for the period dealt with in this study. Originally the name designated only the Ọyọ, being the name by which the Hausa of northern Nigeria referred to the Ọyọ kingdom. The extension of the term to its present general signification, to refer to the linguistic group, was the work of the Christian missionaries in Sierra Leone who first studied these languages, among freed slaves of Yoruba origin there, in the nineteenth century. Even today the word is sometimes understood to refer specifically to the Ọyọ, who are commonly known as ‘Yoruba Proper’.”
[1]
[1]: Law, R. (1977). The Oyo Empire c. 1600 – c. 1836: A West African Imperialism in the Era of the Atlantic Slave Trade. Oxford University Press: 5. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/SB32ZPCF/collection |
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WALS classification is Ajabge; sometimes also called Aja. “In this paper, as elsewhere (see Law and Asiwaju forthcoming), the term Aja will be given a comprehensive interpretation and will be held to cover the groups whose original homesteads are found mostly in the region between the Weme and the Volta rivers and generally south of latitude 9? N, who speak what are more or less dialects of the same Kwa language and whose traditional ruling classes profess a common origin usually traced to Tado. Apart from the nucleus, referred to by Newbury as ’Aja Proper’, who occupy the Mono River valley along the present Togo-Benin boundary, other important sub-groups are the Ewe of today’s Togo and Ghana; the Fon of ancient Allada, Agbome (Abomey), and Whydah or Hueda and the Gun of Porto Novo (new Allada).”
[1]
[1]: Asiwaju, A. I. “The Aja-Speaking Peoples of Nigeria: A Note on Their Origins, Settlement and Cultural Adaptation up to 1945.” Africa: Journal of the International African Institute, vol. 49, no. 1, 1979, pp. 15–28: 16. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2XUNFSVW/collection |
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"Archaeological evidence demonstrates the antiquity of human settlement in Yorubaland, while linguistic evidence suggests that the Yorbua (in the sense of speakers of the Yoruba language) have long occupied their present homeland. The Yoruba have probably lived in Yorubaland for some thousands of years. [...] The traditions of the Yoruba peoples, including the Oyo, trace the origins of kingship to the town of Ife, or Ile Ife."
[1]
[1]: (Law 1977: 26) |
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“Hausa is considered a Chadic language. Today, Hausa speakers are estimated to total about 40 million. The language is primarily spoken in northern Nigeria and Niger, but can also be heard in neighboring countries such as Chad, Burkina Faso, northern Cameroon, Togo, Benin, and Ghana. Several dialects are used, for example, Kano and Sokoto, across northern Nigeria. Since the 17th century, Hausa has been written in a version of Arabic script called ajami that, like Arabic, is written and read left to right. Hausa is a tonal language, signifying that the meaning of a word depends on the high, medium, or low tone assigned to the vowels. The spellings of words, however, have not been standardized, and variations exist. Many of the written works in Hausa, especially prior to the mid-20th century, are based on Islamic themes.”
[1]
“In the city of Sokoto there was a small bureaucracy headed by the vizier who in his own house had some scribes to receive and write short (one-page) letters in classical Arabic to those emirs he was in charge of overseeing (Last 1967:190-97) . Imported paper and local ink were used, and letters from the Amir al-mu’minin had his personal stamp on them (the vizier and the emirs had no stamp of their own). The letters were never dated, but they were folded in a precise way and carried in a pouch by a messenger; it could take a week or more for a letter to reach the addressee, since fifteen miles a day was a good speed and distances were huge.”
[2]
[1]: Falola, Toyin, and Ann Genova. Historical Dictionary of Nigeria. The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2009: 149. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/SJAIVKDW/collection [2]: Last, Murray. “Contradictions in Creating a Jihadi Capital: Sokoto in the Nineteenth Century and Its Legacy.” African Studies Review, vol. 56, no. 2, 2013, pp. 1–20: 6. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/5RUPN5VI/collection |
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“Hausa is considered a Chadic language. Today, Hausa speakers are estimated to total about 40 million. The language is primarily spoken in northern Nigeria and Niger, but can also be heard in neighboring countries such as Chad, Burkina Faso, northern Cameroon, Togo, Benin, and Ghana. Several dialects are used, for example, Kano and Sokoto, across northern Nigeria. Since the 17th century, Hausa has been written in a version of Arabic script called ajami that, like Arabic, is written and read left to right. Hausa is a tonal language, signifying that the meaning of a word depends on the high, medium, or low tone assigned to the vowels. The spellings of words, however, have not been standardized, and variations exist. Many of the written works in Hausa, especially prior to the mid-20th century, are based on Islamic themes.”
[1]
“In the city of Sokoto there was a small bureaucracy headed by the vizier who in his own house had some scribes to receive and write short (one-page) letters in classical Arabic to those emirs he was in charge of overseeing (Last 1967:190-97) . Imported paper and local ink were used, and letters from the Amir al-mu’minin had his personal stamp on them (the vizier and the emirs had no stamp of their own). The letters were never dated, but they were folded in a precise way and carried in a pouch by a messenger; it could take a week or more for a letter to reach the addressee, since fifteen miles a day was a good speed and distances were huge.”
[2]
[1]: Falola, Toyin, and Ann Genova. Historical Dictionary of Nigeria. The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2009: 149. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/SJAIVKDW/collection [2]: Last, Murray. “Contradictions in Creating a Jihadi Capital: Sokoto in the Nineteenth Century and Its Legacy.” African Studies Review, vol. 56, no. 2, 2013, pp. 1–20: 6. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/5RUPN5VI/collection |
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“Hausa is considered a Chadic language. Today, Hausa speakers are estimated to total about 40 million. The language is primarily spoken in northern Nigeria and Niger, but can also be heard in neighboring countries such as Chad, Burkina Faso, northern Cameroon, Togo, Benin, and Ghana. Several dialects are used, for example, Kano and Sokoto, across northern Nigeria. Since the 17th century, Hausa has been written in a version of Arabic script called ajami that, like Arabic, is written and read left to right. Hausa is a tonal language, signifying that the meaning of a word depends on the high, medium, or low tone assigned to the vowels. The spellings of words, however, have not been standardized, and variations exist. Many of the written works in Hausa, especially prior to the mid-20th century, are based on Islamic themes.”
[1]
“In the city of Sokoto there was a small bureaucracy headed by the vizier who in his own house had some scribes to receive and write short (one-page) letters in classical Arabic to those emirs he was in charge of overseeing (Last 1967:190-97) . Imported paper and local ink were used, and letters from the Amir al-mu’minin had his personal stamp on them (the vizier and the emirs had no stamp of their own). The letters were never dated, but they were folded in a precise way and carried in a pouch by a messenger; it could take a week or more for a letter to reach the addressee, since fifteen miles a day was a good speed and distances were huge.”
[2]
[1]: Falola, Toyin, and Ann Genova. Historical Dictionary of Nigeria. The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2009: 149. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/SJAIVKDW/collection [2]: Last, Murray. “Contradictions in Creating a Jihadi Capital: Sokoto in the Nineteenth Century and Its Legacy.” African Studies Review, vol. 56, no. 2, 2013, pp. 1–20: 6. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/5RUPN5VI/collection |
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“Many central Nigerian peoples have a tradition of an ancient migration ‘from Apa’, but in some of these cases, linguistic evidence makes a historic relationship very unlikely. The Idoma speak a Kwa language, related to Igala and Igbo, whereas Jukun is a Benue-Congo language. But Idoma ancestral chants sing of an ancestral home in Apa, in the Benue valley.”
[1]
Arabic was used at least at certain points for judicial/administrative tasks: “Available records reveal that Ochalla Angna and Olimamu Attah both [had] Islamic clerics served as court scribes (what is today known as court clerks) and records of proceedings were written and kept in Arabic.”
[2]
[1]: Isichei, Elizabeth. A History of African Societies to 1870. Cambridge University Press, 1997: 235. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Z4GK27CI/collection [2]: Jacob, Audu. “Pre-Colonial Political Administration in the North Central Nigeria: a Study of the Igala Political Kingdom.” European Scientific Journal, vol. 10, no. 19, 2014, pp. 392–402: 399. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/5AN8R7UW/collection |
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“Many central Nigerian peoples have a tradition of an ancient migration ‘from Apa’, but in some of these cases, linguistic evidence makes a historic relationship very unlikely. The Idoma speak a Kwa language, related to Igala and Igbo, whereas Jukun is a Benue-Congo language. But Idoma ancestral chants sing of an ancestral home in Apa, in the Benue valley.”
[1]
Arabic was used at least at certain points for judicial/administrative tasks: “Available records reveal that Ochalla Angna and Olimamu Attah both [had] Islamic clerics served as court scribes (what is today known as court clerks) and records of proceedings were written and kept in Arabic.”
[2]
[1]: Isichei, Elizabeth. A History of African Societies to 1870. Cambridge University Press, 1997: 235. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Z4GK27CI/collection [2]: Jacob, Audu. “Pre-Colonial Political Administration in the North Central Nigeria: a Study of the Igala Political Kingdom.” European Scientific Journal, vol. 10, no. 19, 2014, pp. 392–402: 399. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/5AN8R7UW/collection |
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The dominant linguistic group in the area is Igbo, but this has many dialects and varieties. It appears there may be a dialectal variety called Nri, but it is unclear whether this is a distinct language from Igbo, or a variant of it, and whether this is exclusive to those people identifying as Nri. WALS does not include Nri, only Igbo. “Linguistically, the Igbo belong to the Kwa sub-family of the Niger-Congo languages. Socio-culturally and linguistically, the Igbo could be further divided into four groups: the northern Igbo, the western Igbo, the north-eastern Igbo and the eastern Igbo.”
[1]
“The Kwa-speaking region is broadly identical with the yam belt. It includes Igbo, Igala, Idoma, Ijo, Yoruba, the Aja languages (Ewe, Fon and Gun) and the Akan languages.”
[2]
“In Nri ’cloth wrapped round the waist’ is akwa, ogodu ’cloth worn’ is efe. In Ibusa only elders know that ’cloth wrapped round the waist’ is ogodu, otherwise all ’cloth’ is called akwa by younger people.”
[3]
[1]: Ejidike, O. M. (1999). Human Rights in the Cultural Traditions and Social Practice of the Igbo of South-Eastern Nigeria. Journal of African Law, 43(1), 71–98: 74. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/7CMJSBJH/collection [2]: Isichei, Elizabeth. A History of African Societies to 1870. Cambridge University Press, 1997: 244. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Z4GK27CI/collection [3]: Onwuejeogwu, M. A. (1975). Some Fundamental Problems in the Application of Lexicostatistics in the Study of African Languages. Paideuma, 21, 6–17: 12. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/IISK3KCM/collection |
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"In comparison to other languages in the colonial system, such as Lingala which was planned and underwent processes of grammatical adaptation by Scheutist missionaries like de Boeck, the languages in Rwanda and Burundi were not fully designed and “constructed” by missionary and colonial agents. Before the arrival of the Europeans, Kinyarwanda and Kirundi were already employed in both kingdoms – Ikinyanduga in southern Rwanda and Ikiruundi in central Burundi – yet with a lot less linguistic unity in the two kingdoms than in (post)colonial times."
[1]
[1]: (Nassenstein 2019: 16-17) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/QUT3P5UT/collection. |
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The dominant linguistic group in the area is Igbo, but this has many dialects and varieties. It appears there may be a dialectal variety called Nri, but it is unclear whether this is a distinct language from Igbo, or a variant of it, and whether this is exclusive to those people identifying as Nri. WALS does not include Nri, only Igbo. “Linguistically, the Igbo belong to the Kwa sub-family of the Niger-Congo languages. Socio-culturally and linguistically, the Igbo could be further divided into four groups: the northern Igbo, the western Igbo, the north-eastern Igbo and the eastern Igbo.”
[1]
“The Kwa-speaking region is broadly identical with the yam belt. It includes Igbo, Igala, Idoma, Ijo, Yoruba, the Aja languages (Ewe, Fon and Gun) and the Akan languages.”
[2]
“In Nri ’cloth wrapped round the waist’ is akwa, ogodu ’cloth worn’ is efe. In Ibusa only elders know that ’cloth wrapped round the waist’ is ogodu, otherwise all ’cloth’ is called akwa by younger people.”
[3]
[1]: Ejidike, O. M. (1999). Human Rights in the Cultural Traditions and Social Practice of the Igbo of South-Eastern Nigeria. Journal of African Law, 43(1), 71–98: 74. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/7CMJSBJH/collection [2]: Isichei, Elizabeth. A History of African Societies to 1870. Cambridge University Press, 1997: 244. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Z4GK27CI/collection [3]: Onwuejeogwu, M. A. (1975). Some Fundamental Problems in the Application of Lexicostatistics in the Study of African Languages. Paideuma, 21, 6–17: 12. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/IISK3KCM/collection |
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“Hausa is considered a Chadic language. Today, Hausa speakers are estimated to total about 40 million. The language is primarily spoken in northern Nigeria and Niger, but can also be heard in neighboring countries such as Chad, Burkina Faso, northern Cameroon, Togo, Benin, and Ghana. Several dialects are used, for example, Kano and Sokoto, across northern Nigeria. Since the 17th century, Hausa has been written in a version of Arabic script called ajami that, like Arabic, is written and read left to right. Hausa is a tonal language, signifying that the meaning of a word depends on the high, medium, or low tone assigned to the vowels. The spellings of words, however, have not been standardized, and variations exist. Many of the written works in Hausa, especially prior to the mid-20th century, are based on Islamic themes.”
[1]
[1]: Falola, Toyin, and Ann Genova. Historical Dictionary of Nigeria. The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2009: 149. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/SJAIVKDW/collection |
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“As a consequence, their Nilo-Saharan language, Kanuri, became the lingua franca of the empire.”
[1]
“Generally the main objectives of all mahrams was to show appreciation by the sovereign and this was through bestowing special privileges to the person (or persons) to whom the mahram was addressed. In the case of Borno, one such group that appear to have benefitted most from this system is the ’(scholastic) class. The reason for their dominance is obvious. In the first place they constituted a literate, knowledgeable and articulate group in the society. Because of their skill, especially in Arabic, an international medium which was also the official language of Borno, as well as the Maghrib, they were Borno’s intellectual link with the Islamic World. As a highly mobile group, possessing their own peculiar network, the scholars were well informed about events in other Muslim lands. They also had close relations with the merchant class in the sense that the former’s itinerant journeys were often in the company of the latter.”
[2]
“The Bornu manuscripts discussed in the present article were first described by A. D. H. Bivar in his publication of 1960 ’A dated Kuran from Bornu’ (Bivar 1960). The author gave a short but very informative account of four early quranic manuscripts with interlinear vernacular glosses in Arabic/Ajamic script, which he examined during his travels to northern Nigeria in 1958-59. Among the most remarkable findings of Bivar’s investigation was the discovery of a date in one of the Qurans, and the identification of the vernacular language. Apart from the vernacular glosses, the dated manuscript, which was in the possession of Imam Ibrahim, Imam Juma Maiduguri (the head of the Muslim community of Maiduguri), carried an abridged Arabic commentary, the jami ahkam al-qur’an of al-Qurtubi, and a colophon with the date of completion of this commentary–1 Jumadi II, 1080 ah (26 October, ad 1669) (Bivar 1960: 203). The language of the glosses in all four Qurans was established as Kanembu, one of the dialects of Kanuri–a major Nilo-Saharan language spoken mainly in north-east Nigeria and the main language of ancient Bornu.”
[3]
[1]: Hiribarren, V. (2016). Kanem-Bornu Empire. In N. Dalziel & J. M. MacKenzie (Eds.), The Encyclopedia of Empire (pp. 1–6). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.: 1–2. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/KNHK5ANQ/collection [2]: AMINU, M. (1981). THE PLACE OF MAHRAMS IN THE HISTORY OF KANEM-BORNO. Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria, 10(4), 31–38: 33. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/5ERZU7K2/collection [3]: Bondarev, Dmitry. “The Language of the Glosses in the Bornu Quranic Manuscripts.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, vol. 69, no. 1, 2006, pp. 113–40: 113. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/EK9MA3WU/collection |
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“As a consequence, their Nilo-Saharan language, Kanuri, became the lingua franca of the empire.”
[1]
“Generally the main objectives of all mahrams was to show appreciation by the sovereign and this was through bestowing special privileges to the person (or persons) to whom the mahram was addressed. In the case of Borno, one such group that appear to have benefitted most from this system is the ’(scholastic) class. The reason for their dominance is obvious. In the first place they constituted a literate, knowledgeable and articulate group in the society. Because of their skill, especially in Arabic, an international medium which was also the official language of Borno, as well as the Maghrib, they were Borno’s intellectual link with the Islamic World. As a highly mobile group, possessing their own peculiar network, the scholars were well informed about events in other Muslim lands. They also had close relations with the merchant class in the sense that the former’s itinerant journeys were often in the company of the latter.”
[2]
“The Bornu manuscripts discussed in the present article were first described by A. D. H. Bivar in his publication of 1960 ’A dated Kuran from Bornu’ (Bivar 1960). The author gave a short but very informative account of four early quranic manuscripts with interlinear vernacular glosses in Arabic/Ajamic script, which he examined during his travels to northern Nigeria in 1958-59. Among the most remarkable findings of Bivar’s investigation was the discovery of a date in one of the Qurans, and the identification of the vernacular language. Apart from the vernacular glosses, the dated manuscript, which was in the possession of Imam Ibrahim, Imam Juma Maiduguri (the head of the Muslim community of Maiduguri), carried an abridged Arabic commentary, the jami ahkam al-qur’an of al-Qurtubi, and a colophon with the date of completion of this commentary–1 Jumadi II, 1080 ah (26 October, ad 1669) (Bivar 1960: 203). The language of the glosses in all four Qurans was established as Kanembu, one of the dialects of Kanuri–a major Nilo-Saharan language spoken mainly in north-east Nigeria and the main language of ancient Bornu.”
[3]
[1]: Hiribarren, V. (2016). Kanem-Bornu Empire. In N. Dalziel & J. M. MacKenzie (Eds.), The Encyclopedia of Empire (pp. 1–6). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.: 1–2. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/KNHK5ANQ/collection [2]: AMINU, M. (1981). THE PLACE OF MAHRAMS IN THE HISTORY OF KANEM-BORNO. Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria, 10(4), 31–38: 33. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/5ERZU7K2/collection [3]: Bondarev, Dmitry. “The Language of the Glosses in the Bornu Quranic Manuscripts.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, vol. 69, no. 1, 2006, pp. 113–40: 113. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/EK9MA3WU/collection |
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|
“As a consequence, their Nilo-Saharan language, Kanuri, became the lingua franca of the empire.”
[1]
“Generally the main objectives of all mahrams was to show appreciation by the sovereign and this was through bestowing special privileges to the person (or persons) to whom the mahram was addressed. In the case of Borno, one such group that appear to have benefitted most from this system is the ’(scholastic) class. The reason for their dominance is obvious. In the first place they constituted a literate, knowledgeable and articulate group in the society. Because of their skill, especially in Arabic, an international medium which was also the official language of Borno, as well as the Maghrib, they were Borno’s intellectual link with the Islamic World. As a highly mobile group, possessing their own peculiar network, the scholars were well informed about events in other Muslim lands. They also had close relations with the merchant class in the sense that the former’s itinerant journeys were often in the company of the latter.”
[2]
“The Bornu manuscripts discussed in the present article were first described by A. D. H. Bivar in his publication of 1960 ’A dated Kuran from Bornu’ (Bivar 1960). The author gave a short but very informative account of four early quranic manuscripts with interlinear vernacular glosses in Arabic/Ajamic script, which he examined during his travels to northern Nigeria in 1958-59. Among the most remarkable findings of Bivar’s investigation was the discovery of a date in one of the Qurans, and the identification of the vernacular language. Apart from the vernacular glosses, the dated manuscript, which was in the possession of Imam Ibrahim, Imam Juma Maiduguri (the head of the Muslim community of Maiduguri), carried an abridged Arabic commentary, the jami ahkam al-qur’an of al-Qurtubi, and a colophon with the date of completion of this commentary–1 Jumadi II, 1080 ah (26 October, ad 1669) (Bivar 1960: 203). The language of the glosses in all four Qurans was established as Kanembu, one of the dialects of Kanuri–a major Nilo-Saharan language spoken mainly in north-east Nigeria and the main language of ancient Bornu.”
[3]
[1]: Hiribarren, V. (2016). Kanem-Bornu Empire. In N. Dalziel & J. M. MacKenzie (Eds.), The Encyclopedia of Empire (pp. 1–6). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.: 1–2. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/KNHK5ANQ/collection [2]: AMINU, M. (1981). THE PLACE OF MAHRAMS IN THE HISTORY OF KANEM-BORNO. Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria, 10(4), 31–38: 33. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/5ERZU7K2/collection [3]: Bondarev, Dmitry. “The Language of the Glosses in the Bornu Quranic Manuscripts.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, vol. 69, no. 1, 2006, pp. 113–40: 113. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/EK9MA3WU/collection |
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WALS classification. “Apart from the nucleus, referred to by Newbury as ’Aja Proper’, who occupy the Mono River valley along the present Togo-Benin boundary, other important sub-groups are the Ewe of today’s Togo and Ghana; the Fon of ancient Allada, Agbome (Abomey), and Whydah or Hueda and the Gun of Porto Novo (new Allada).”
[1]
[1]: Asiwaju, A. I. “The Aja-Speaking Peoples of Nigeria: A Note on Their Origins, Settlement and Cultural Adaptation up to 1945.” Africa: Journal of the International African Institute, vol. 49, no. 1, 1979, pp. 15–28: 16. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2XUNFSVW/collection |
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Also called Edo, but WALS uses Bini. Other languages were also present, such as Igbo/Ibo, Itsekiri, Ijaw/Ijo, Yoruba. “The great majority of its inhabitants spoke Edo, the language of Benin City, with negligible dialect variations, but there were Ibo settlements on the eastern borders, Itsekiri and Ijaw lining the rivers in the south-west, and Yoruba villages on the north-west”.
[1]
[1]: Bradbury, R. E. (1967). The Kingdom of Benin. In West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century (Repr, pp. 1–35). Published for the International African Institute by Oxford University Press: 3. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Z8DJIKP8/collection |
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|
“[T]he Jukun speak a Benue-Congo language,with its linguistic relatives in central Nigeria and the Cross River area”
[1]
“Many central Nigerian peoples have a tradition of an ancient migration ‘from Apa’, but in some of these cases, linguistic evidence makes a historic relationship very unlikely. The Idoma speak a Kwa language, related to Igala and Igbo, whereas Jukun is a Benue-Congo language.”
[1]
[1]: Isichei, E. (1997). A History of African Societies to 1870. Cambridge University Press: 235. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Z4GK27CI/collection |
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|
“The costal areas of northern Senegal where early sustained contact with Europeans occurred lay within the Wolof Kingdoms of Waalo and Kajoor. It was here that the Atlantic cities of Saint-Louis and Goree were first established, making of Wolof an urban language.”
[1]
[1]: (McLaughlin 2008, 93) McLaughlin, Fiona. 2008. ‘Senegal: The Emergence of a National Lingua Franca’. In Languages and National Identity in Africa. Edited by Andrew Simpson. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/7VBFQ96V/collection |
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|
“It is believed that Sereer speakers migrated from Middle Senegal Valley in the Southern margins of the Sahara desert before settling in Bawol, around the modern towns of Thies, Sinig and Saalum.”
[1]
[1]: (Thiaw 2013, 97) Thiaw, Ibrahima. 2013. ‘From the Senegal River to Siin: The Archaeology of Sereer Migrations in North-Western Senegambia. In Migration and Membership Regimes in Global and Historical Perspectives. Edited by Ulbe Bosma. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Q2ZFJKTJ/collection |
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|
“A great deal of information about this dynasty and the vast empire that the rulers controlled comes from the inscriptions. These inscriptions are in three languages, Tamil, Sanskrit and Prakrit. Sanskrit was the court language of the Pallavas.”
[1]
[1]: (Kamlesh 2010, 563) Kamelsh, Kapur. 2010. ‘The Pallava Dynasty’ In History of Ancient India: Portraits of a Nation. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UETBPIDE/collection |
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|
"Culturally, manifold areas of overlap existed between the societies of the interlacustrine region. With few exceptions their languages were all patterned on the basic Bantu structure. On top of this several languages were especially closely related and in some instances two or more societies virtually shared a linguistic identity. Runyankore, for example, was basically identical to the Rukiga spoken by the Bakiga (in the present Kigezi district of Uganda), so that in the present century a common orthography could be developed for the two languages. While Runyankore was less close to Luganda, its linguistic affinities with, among others, Karagwe and Bunyoro-Kitara (and the latter’s nineteenth-century offshoot Toro) easily allowed two-way communication with these societies."
[1]
[1]: (Doornbos 1978: 19) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ISMJWJ4U/collection. |
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There seems to be a scholarly debate as to classify the Kingdom of Baol as a Wolof kingdom or a Sereer kingdom. Liora Bigon and Eric Ross and Ibrahima Thiaw have included Bawol within a Sereer grouping while Fiona McLaughlin labels Baol as a Wolof kingdom. This confusion might be due to that fact that the Baol Kingdom had large groups of Sereers and Wolofs within its domains. Furthermore, the Wolof kingdom of Cayor annexed the Baol several times throughout its duration. Their ruler was called the damel-teen reflecting the union of the two kingdoms. “It is believed that Sereer speakers migrated from Middle Senegal Valley in the Southern margins of the Sahara desert before settling in Bawol, around the modern towns of Thies, Sinig and Saalum.”
[1]
“The Wolof kingdoms of Bawol and Jolof abutted the Seereer kingdoms of Saalum to the south, but there were also pockets of Seereer living within the Wolof kingdoms. Wolof political, cultural, and linguistic influence on the Seereer is widely attested in the historical literature, so it is highly probable that Wolof was first used as a lingua franca in contact between these two people.
[2]
[1]: (Thiaw 2013, 97) Thiaw, Ibrahima. 2013. ‘From the Senegal River to Siin: The Archaeology of Sereer Migrations in North-Western Senegambia. In Migration and Membership Regimes in Global and Historical Perspectives. Edited by Ulbe Bosma. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Q2ZFJKTJ/collection [2]: (McLaughlin, 2008, 92) McLaughlin, Fiona. 2008. ‘Senegal: The Emergence of a National Lingua Franca’. In Language and National Identity in Africa. Edited by Andrew Simpson. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/search/McLaughlin/titleCreatorYear/items/7VBFQ96V/item-list |
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|
There seems to be a scholarly debate as to classify the Kingdom of Baol as a Wolof kingdom or a Sereer kingdom. Liora Bigon and Eric Ross and Ibrahima Thiaw have included Bawol within a Sereer grouping while Fiona McLaughlin labels Baol as a Wolof kingdom. This confusion might be due to that fact that the Baol Kingdom had large groups of Sereers and Wolofs within its domains. Furthermore, the Wolof kingdom of Cayor annexed the Baol several times throughout its duration. Their ruler was called the damel-teen reflecting the union of the two kingdoms. “It is believed that Sereer speakers migrated from Middle Senegal Valley in the Southern margins of the Sahara desert before settling in Bawol, around the modern towns of Thies, Sinig and Saalum.”
[1]
“The Wolof kingdoms of Bawol and Jolof abutted the Seereer kingdoms of Saalum to the south, but there were also pockets of Seereer living within the Wolof kingdoms. Wolof political, cultural, and linguistic influence on the Seereer is widely attested in the historical literature, so it is highly probable that Wolof was first used as a lingua franca in contact between these two people.
[2]
[1]: (Thiaw 2013, 97) Thiaw, Ibrahima. 2013. ‘From the Senegal River to Siin: The Archaeology of Sereer Migrations in North-Western Senegambia. In Migration and Membership Regimes in Global and Historical Perspectives. Edited by Ulbe Bosma. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Q2ZFJKTJ/collection [2]: (McLaughlin, 2008, 92) McLaughlin, Fiona. 2008. ‘Senegal: The Emergence of a National Lingua Franca’. In Language and National Identity in Africa. Edited by Andrew Simpson. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/search/McLaughlin/titleCreatorYear/items/7VBFQ96V/item-list |
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|
“It is believed that Sereer speakers migrated from Middle Senegal Valley in the Southern margins of the Sahara desert before settling in Bawol, around the modern towns of Thies, Sinig and Saalum.”
[1]
[1]: (Thiaw 2013, 97) Thiaw, Ibrahima. 2013. ‘From the Senegal River to Siin: The Archaeology of Sereer Migrations in North-Western Senegambia. In Migration and Membership Regimes in Global and Historical Perspectives. Edited by Ulbe Bosma. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Q2ZFJKTJ/collection |
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|
“The costal areas of northern Senegal where early sustained contact with Europeans occurred lay within the Wolof Kingdoms of Waalo and Kajoor. It was here that the Atlantic cities of Saint-Louis and Goree were first established, making of Wolof an urban language.”
[1]
[1]: (McLaughlin 2008, 93) McLaughlin, Fiona. 2008. ‘Senegal: The Emergence of a National Lingua Franca’. In Languages and National Identity in Africa. Edited by Andrew Simpson. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/7VBFQ96V/collection |
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|
“The Wolof language belongs to the West Atlantic branch of the Niger Korodofanian language family. Little is known about the origins of the Wolof language, although most scholars date it back to the thirteenth century, with the birth of the Jolof Empire under Njaajaan Njaay.”
[1]
[1]: (Tang 2007, 7) Tang, Patricia. 2007. Masters of the Sabar: Wolof Griot Percussionists of Senegal. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/KSDZ5EFT/collection |
||||||
|
"Culturally, manifold areas of overlap existed between the societies of the interlacustrine region. With few exceptions their languages were all patterned on the basic Bantu structure. On top of this several languages were especially closely related and in some instances two or more societies virtually shared a linguistic identity. Runyankore, for example, was basically identical to the Rukiga spoken by the Bakiga (in the present Kigezi district of Uganda), so that in the present century a common orthography could be developed for the two languages. While Runyankore was less close to Luganda, its linguistic affinities with, among others, Karagwe and Bunyoro-Kitara (and the latter’s nineteenth-century offshoot Toro) easily allowed two-way communication with these societies."
[1]
[1]: (Doornbos 1978: 19) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ISMJWJ4U/collection. |
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|
“The term Torodbe, as the clerics of the Futa Toro were know, covered persons of diverse social status and ethnic origin. They spoke Fulfulde and embraced customs of the pastoral Fulbe, but they were sedentaries, not necessarily of Fulbe origin.”
[1]
Communications between Senegambian groups and the French and English colonists were made in Arabic and French. “There was a series of treaties, frequently negotiated with great care and written up in French and Arabic.”
[2]
[1]: (Levtzion and Pouwels 2000, 78) Levitzon, Nehemia and Randall L. Pouwels. The History of Islam in Africa. Athens: Ohio University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Pouwels/titleCreatorYear/items/R3XRWJBX/item-list [2]: (Klein 1972, 425) Klein, Martin A. 1972. ‘Social and Economic Factors in the Muslim Revolution in Senegambia.’ The Journal of Africa History. Vol. 13:3. Pp 419-441. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ZJRN8UJ8/collection |
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|
“The Madurai-ttalavaralarn, a Tamil work describes the history of the great Madurai Temple.”
[1]
“A Sanskrit epigraph mentions the name Madhurakavi who belonged to a family of doctors and was a minister under king Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan.”
[2]
[1]: (Kamlesh 2010, 598) Kamlesh, Kapur. 2010. ‘Pandya Dynasty’ In Portraits of a Nation: History of Ancient India. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/3TS5DCT6/collection [2]: (Kamlesh 2010, 599) Kamlesh, Kapur. 2010. ‘Pandya Dynasty’ In Portraits of a Nation: History of Ancient India. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/3TS5DCT6/collection |
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|
“The term Torodbe, as the clerics of the Futa Toro were know, covered persons of diverse social status and ethnic origin. They spoke Fulfulde and embraced customs of the pastoral Fulbe, but they were sedentaries, not necessarily of Fulbe origin.”
[1]
Communications between Senegambian groups and the French and English colonists were made in Arabic and French. “There was a series of treaties, frequently negotiated with great care and written up in French and Arabic.”
[2]
[1]: (Levtzion and Pouwels 2000, 78) Levitzon, Nehemia and Randall L. Pouwels. The History of Islam in Africa. Athens: Ohio University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Pouwels/titleCreatorYear/items/R3XRWJBX/item-list [2]: (Klein 1972, 425) Klein, Martin A. 1972. ‘Social and Economic Factors in the Muslim Revolution in Senegambia.’ The Journal of Africa History. Vol. 13:3. Pp 419-441. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ZJRN8UJ8/collection |
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|
“Pulaar, also known as Fula, Fulani, or Fulfulde, which is spoken across West Africa from Senegal and Mauritania to Chad […] Several mutually intelligible varieties of Pulaar are spoken in Senegal which the dominant one being in the Fuuta Tooro dialect of northern Senegal, one of the most conservative Fula dialects […] These northern Atlantic languages share certain typological features such as extensive noun class systems, consisting of more than twenty classes in some dialects of Pulaar; a large set of verbal extensions; and morphologically conditioned consonant mutation. They are also unusual among Niger-Congo languages in that they are not tonal.”
[1]
[1]: (McLaughlin 2008, 89) McLaughlin, Fiona. 2008. ‘Senegal: The Emergence of a National Lingua Franca’. In Languages and National Identity in Africa. Edited by Andrew Simpson. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/7VBFQ96V/collection |
||||||
|
“The Wolof language belongs to the West Atlantic branch of the Niger Korodofanian language family. Little is known about the origins of the Wolof language, although most scholars date it back to the thirteenth century, with the birth of the Jolof Empire under Njaajaan Njaay.”
[1]
[1]: (Tang 2007, 7) Tang, Patricia. 2007. Masters of the Sabar: Wolof Griot Percussionists of Senegal. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/KSDZ5EFT/collection |
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|
"It was clear to the British when they arrived that the Baganda shared a common language spoken among all members, namely Luganda. Attempts by 19th-century European missionaries to use Luganda to preach to Banyankole and Banyoro failed, thereby demonstrating the linguistic uniqueness of Luganda and its association with the Baganda.61 Similarly, although Luganda is most similar to Lusoga, the spoken language of the Busoga region east of Buganda, the languages are not similar enough that attempts have been made to merge them, as has been done with the consolidation of Lunyoro, Lutoro, Lunyankole, and Luchiga into Runyakitara in western Uganda."
[1]
[1]: (Green 2010: 9) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/CSATUHA2/collection. |
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|
"It was clear to the British when they arrived that the Baganda shared a common language spoken among all members, namely Luganda. Attempts by 19th-century European missionaries to use Luganda to preach to Banyankole and Banyoro failed, thereby demonstrating the linguistic uniqueness of Luganda and its association with the Baganda.61 Similarly, although Luganda is most similar to Lusoga, the spoken language of the Busoga region east of Buganda, the languages are not similar enough that attempts have been made to merge them, as has been done with the consolidation of Lunyoro, Lutoro, Lunyankole, and Luchiga into Runyakitara in western Uganda."
[1]
[1]: (Green 2010: 9) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/CSATUHA2/collection. |
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|
"In comparison to other languages in the colonial system, such as Lingala which was planned and underwent processes of grammatical adaptation by Scheutist missionaries like de Boeck, the languages in Rwanda and Burundi were not fully designed and “constructed” by missionary and colonial agents. Before the arrival of the Europeans, Kinyarwanda and Kirundi were already employed in both kingdoms – Ikinyanduga in southern Rwanda and Ikiruundi in central Burundi – yet with a lot less linguistic unity in the two kingdoms than in (post)colonial times."
[1]
[1]: (Nassenstein 2019: 16-17) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/QUT3P5UT/collection. |
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|
“A great deal of information about this dynasty and the vast empire that the rulers controlled comes from the inscriptions. These inscriptions are in three languages, Tamil, Sanskrit and Prakrit. Sanskrit was the court language of the Pallavas.”
[1]
[1]: (Kamlesh 2010, 563) Kamelsh, Kapur. 2010. ‘The Pallava Dynasty’ In History of Ancient India: Portraits of a Nation. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UETBPIDE/collection |
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|
The following quote discusses the archaeological site at Kodumanal. “Over 100 inscribed pieces of pottery were also found in the excavations. Most of these were in the Tamil language and Tamil-Brahmi script. A few inscriptions are in the Prakrit language and Brahmi script. Palaeo-magnetic dating of these potsherds has given a rage of c. 300 BCE to 200 CE.”
[1]
[1]: (Singh 2008, 402) Singh, Upinder. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. London: Pearson Education. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UJG2G6MJ/collection |
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|
The following quote discusses the archaeological site at Kodumanal. “Over 100 inscribed pieces of pottery were also found in the excavations. Most of these were in the Tamil language and Tamil-Brahmi script. A few inscriptions are in the Prakrit language and Brahmi script. Palaeo-magnetic dating of these potsherds has given a rage of c. 300 BCE to 200 CE.”
[1]
[1]: (Singh 2008, 402) Singh, Upinder. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. London: Pearson Education. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UJG2G6MJ/collection |
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|
“Telugu was the court language of the Nayaks, and in the Martha period, the favoured language for music.”
[1]
“Sanskrit and Telugu literatures had flourished during the Nayak rule and continued to do so reaching great heights during the time of Shahji, the second Maratha king.”
[2]
“In his Maratha Rule in the Carnatic, C.K. Srinivasan lists the various famous writers who enriched literature and philosophy with their works. There was an enormous literary output in Sanskrit, Telugu and Tamil, and it embraced every form of composition: epics, drama, romantic pieces, burlesques, treatise on medicine, astrology and music.
[3]
[1]: (Chakravarthy 2016, 80) Chakravarthy, Pradeep. 2016. ‘Thanjavur’s Sarasvati Muhal Library’ India International Centre Quarterly. Vol. 42:3/4. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/CU6HMURQ/collection [2]: (Appasamy 1980, 10) Appasamy, Jaya. 1980. Thanjavur Painting of the Maratha Period. Vol. 1. New Delhi. Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/35BU75NG/collection [3]: (Appasamy 1980, 11) Appasamy, Jaya. 1980. Thanjavur Painting of the Maratha Period. Vol. 1. New Delhi. Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/35BU75NG/collection |
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|
“Telugu was the court language of the Nayaks, and in the Martha period, the favoured language for music.”
[1]
“Sanskrit and Telugu literatures had flourished during the Nayak rule and continued to do so reaching great heights during the time of Shahji, the second Maratha king.”
[2]
“In his Maratha Rule in the Carnatic, C.K. Srinivasan lists the various famous writers who enriched literature and philosophy with their works. There was an enormous literary output in Sanskrit, Telugu and Tamil, and it embraced every form of composition: epics, drama, romantic pieces, burlesques, treatise on medicine, astrology and music.
[3]
[1]: (Chakravarthy 2016, 80) Chakravarthy, Pradeep. 2016. ‘Thanjavur’s Sarasvati Muhal Library’ India International Centre Quarterly. Vol. 42:3/4. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/CU6HMURQ/collection [2]: (Appasamy 1980, 10) Appasamy, Jaya. 1980. Thanjavur Painting of the Maratha Period. Vol. 1. New Delhi. Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/35BU75NG/collection [3]: (Appasamy 1980, 11) Appasamy, Jaya. 1980. Thanjavur Painting of the Maratha Period. Vol. 1. New Delhi. Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/35BU75NG/collection |
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|
“Telugu was the court language of the Nayaks, and in the Martha period, the favoured language for music.”
[1]
“Sanskrit and Telugu literatures had flourished during the Nayak rule and continued to do so reaching great heights during the time of Shahji, the second Maratha king.”
[2]
“In his Maratha Rule in the Carnatic, C.K. Srinivasan lists the various famous writers who enriched literature and philosophy with their works. There was an enormous literary output in Sanskrit, Telugu and Tamil, and it embraced every form of composition: epics, drama, romantic pieces, burlesques, treatise on medicine, astrology and music.
[3]
[1]: (Chakravarthy 2016, 80) Chakravarthy, Pradeep. 2016. ‘Thanjavur’s Sarasvati Muhal Library’ India International Centre Quarterly. Vol. 42:3/4. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/CU6HMURQ/collection [2]: (Appasamy 1980, 10) Appasamy, Jaya. 1980. Thanjavur Painting of the Maratha Period. Vol. 1. New Delhi. Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/35BU75NG/collection [3]: (Appasamy 1980, 11) Appasamy, Jaya. 1980. Thanjavur Painting of the Maratha Period. Vol. 1. New Delhi. Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/35BU75NG/collection |
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“Tamil is the oldest among the spoken literary languages of South India. The earliest known phase of this literature is usually designated the Samgam literature for the reason that the anthologies of odes, lyrics, and idylls that form the bulk of that literature were composed by a body of Tamil scholars or poets in three successive literary akademies called ‘Sangam’. Thse akademies were established by the Pandyan kings.”
[1]
[1]: (Agnihotri 1988, 343) Agnihotri, V.K. 1988. Indian History. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PNX9XBJQ/collection |
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“The Persian records of the Nawab in the Tamilnad Archives, Madras, contain letters, government orders, accounts, service records of officials. There is also a diary maintained by Kishanchand, a trusted munshi of Mohammed Ali. It covers a period of about two years ending with February 1785.”
[1]
Note that the majority of the population would have spoken Tamil, historically the most widespread language in the region.
[1]: (Ramaswami 1984, 329) Ramaswami, N.S. 1984. Political History of Carnatic Under the Nawabs. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PTIS9MB4/collection |
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“A great deal of information about this dynasty and the vast empire that the rulers controlled comes from the inscriptions. These inscriptions are in three languages, Tamil, Sanskrit and Prakrit. Sanskrit was the court language of the Pallavas.”
[1]
[1]: (Kamlesh 2010, 563) Kamelsh, Kapur. 2010. ‘The Pallava Dynasty’ In History of Ancient India: Portraits of a Nation. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UETBPIDE/collection |
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“Towards the sixth century, the coinage shows the figures of Brahmanical gods and goddesses, siting and standing, along with the combined use of Prakrit and Tamil languages.”
[1]
The Buddhist text Vinayaviniccaya (Vin-vn) was compiled by Buddhadatta in the 5th Century CE in Tamil Nadu region of Chola in the Pali language. “Much discussed in the general context of South Indian history is the scanty information that Vin-vn was composed during the regin of Acutanikkante Kalambakulanandane, Vin-vn 3179. This is the form of the family name of Acutavikkanta (skr. Acyutavikranta) of Vin-vn-pt and of most manuscripts with the exception of the oldest one which has Kalabbha. Thus, Acuta may belong either to the either to the Kalabhra or to the Kadamba dynasty.”
[2]
“Since the Pali Kalabbha will invariably become Kalabhra in Sanskrit, it follows that the Kalabhra king of the Velvikkudi character is identical with Accuta Kalabbha and Accuda Kalappala.”
[3]
[1]: (Gupta 1989, 23-24) Gupta, Parmanand. 1989. Geography from Ancient Indian Coins and Seals. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/5Z4TFP7P/collection [2]: (von Hinüber 1996, 156) von Hinüber, Oskar. 1996. A Handbook of Pali Literature. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/H6ZW8JXP/collection [3]: (Iyengar 2001, 535) Iyengar, Srinivasa. 2001. History of the Tamils: From the Earliest Times to 600 A.D. New Delhi: Asian Education Services. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/S5ZIRUKU/collection |
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“Towards the sixth century, the coinage shows the figures of Brahmanical gods and goddesses, siting and standing, along with the combined use of Prakrit and Tamil languages.”
[1]
The Buddhist text Vinayaviniccaya (Vin-vn) was compiled by Buddhadatta in the 5th Century CE in Tamil Nadu region of Chola in the Pali language. “Much discussed in the general context of South Indian history is the scanty information that Vin-vn was composed during the regin of Acutanikkante Kalambakulanandane, Vin-vn 3179. This is the form of the family name of Acutavikkanta (skr. Acyutavikranta) of Vin-vn-pt and of most manuscripts with the exception of the oldest one which has Kalabbha. Thus, Acuta may belong either to the either to the Kalabhra or to the Kadamba dynasty.”
[2]
“Since the Pali Kalabbha will invariably become Kalabhra in Sanskrit, it follows that the Kalabhra king of the Velvikkudi character is identical with Accuta Kalabbha and Accuda Kalappala.”
[3]
[1]: (Gupta 1989, 23-24) Gupta, Parmanand. 1989. Geography from Ancient Indian Coins and Seals. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/5Z4TFP7P/collection [2]: (von Hinüber 1996, 156) von Hinüber, Oskar. 1996. A Handbook of Pali Literature. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/H6ZW8JXP/collection [3]: (Iyengar 2001, 535) Iyengar, Srinivasa. 2001. History of the Tamils: From the Earliest Times to 600 A.D. New Delhi: Asian Education Services. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/S5ZIRUKU/collection |
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“Towards the sixth century, the coinage shows the figures of Brahmanical gods and goddesses, siting and standing, along with the combined use of Prakrit and Tamil languages.”
[1]
The Buddhist text Vinayaviniccaya (Vin-vn) was compiled by Buddhadatta in the 5th Century CE in Tamil Nadu region of Chola in the Pali language. “Much discussed in the general context of South Indian history is the scanty information that Vin-vn was composed during the regin of Acutanikkante Kalambakulanandane, Vin-vn 3179. This is the form of the family name of Acutavikkanta (skr. Acyutavikranta) of Vin-vn-pt and of most manuscripts with the exception of the oldest one which has Kalabbha. Thus, Acuta may belong either to the either to the Kalabhra or to the Kadamba dynasty.”
[2]
“Since the Pali Kalabbha will invariably become Kalabhra in Sanskrit, it follows that the Kalabhra king of the Velvikkudi character is identical with Accuta Kalabbha and Accuda Kalappala.”
[3]
[1]: (Gupta 1989, 23-24) Gupta, Parmanand. 1989. Geography from Ancient Indian Coins and Seals. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/5Z4TFP7P/collection [2]: (von Hinüber 1996, 156) von Hinüber, Oskar. 1996. A Handbook of Pali Literature. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/H6ZW8JXP/collection [3]: (Iyengar 2001, 535) Iyengar, Srinivasa. 2001. History of the Tamils: From the Earliest Times to 600 A.D. New Delhi: Asian Education Services. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/S5ZIRUKU/collection |
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“Towards the sixth century, the coinage shows the figures of Brahmanical gods and goddesses, siting and standing, along with the combined use of Prakrit and Tamil languages.”
[1]
The Buddhist text Vinayaviniccaya (Vin-vn) was compiled by Buddhadatta in the 5th Century CE in Tamil Nadu region of Chola in the Pali language. “Much discussed in the general context of South Indian history is the scanty information that Vin-vn was composed during the regin of Acutanikkante Kalambakulanandane, Vin-vn 3179. This is the form of the family name of Acutavikkanta (skr. Acyutavikranta) of Vin-vn-pt and of most manuscripts with the exception of the oldest one which has Kalabbha. Thus, Acuta may belong either to the either to the Kalabhra or to the Kadamba dynasty.”
[2]
“Since the Pali Kalabbha will invariably become Kalabhra in Sanskrit, it follows that the Kalabhra king of the Velvikkudi character is identical with Accuta Kalabbha and Accuda Kalappala.”
[3]
[1]: (Gupta 1989, 23-24) Gupta, Parmanand. 1989. Geography from Ancient Indian Coins and Seals. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/5Z4TFP7P/collection [2]: (von Hinüber 1996, 156) von Hinüber, Oskar. 1996. A Handbook of Pali Literature. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/H6ZW8JXP/collection [3]: (Iyengar 2001, 535) Iyengar, Srinivasa. 2001. History of the Tamils: From the Earliest Times to 600 A.D. New Delhi: Asian Education Services. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/S5ZIRUKU/collection |
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“All these sculptures of manifestations of Siva and other deities are familiar from other periods and regions of India, but what is striking about the Pudu Mandapa is the number of sculptures that can be identified only through knowledge of local myths and literature. By ‘local’ both the Tamil-speaking area generally and specifically the Madurai region are meant. The sculptures of the Padu Mandapa emphasise that knowledge of regional literature as well as the widely known puranic literature is essential in order to identify the subjects of sculpture.”
[1]
[1]: (Branfoot 2001, 203) Branfoot, Crispin. 2001. ‘Tirumala Nayaka’s ‘New Hall’ and the European Study of the South Indian Temple. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Vol 11:2. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/FE5VZ76M/collection |
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“10. East Central Igbo 11. South Eastern Efik”
[1]
The Aro Confederacy was made up of distinct ethnic groups – Igbo, Akpa and Ibibio. That diversity extended to which languages were used, and is still present. “It is very well acknowledged that the Aro are culturally very eclectic. This flows naturally from the genesis of the Aro Confederacy from three diverse dynasties from Igbo, Akpa and Ibibio tribes. It is important to note that of the five main African language sub-families, Aro is about the only one that is composed of people of more than one language sub-family, namely Kwa sub-family (which includes the Igbo, Yoruba, Edo, Igala and Ijaw) and, the Benue-Congo sub-family (which consists of Tiv, Bantu (Bamileke and Ekoi); Efik-Ibibio, Jukun and the Plateau languages).”
[2]
[1]: Adekunle, M. A. (1972). Multilingualism and Language Function in Nigeria. African Studies Review, 15(2), 185–207: 192. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/GM68JYZA/collection [2]: Okoro, M. A., & Ezumah, M. B. (Eds.). (2017). Perspectives on Aro History and Civilization: The Splendour of a Great Past (Vol. 3). Lulu.com: 2–3. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MVK268JM/collection |
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Previously coded as "Latin; Germanic".
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“10. East Central Igbo 11. South Eastern Efik”
[1]
The Aro Confederacy was made up of distinct ethnic groups – Igbo, Akpa and Ibibio. That diversity extended to which languages were used, and is still present. “It is very well acknowledged that the Aro are culturally very eclectic. This flows naturally from the genesis of the Aro Confederacy from three diverse dynasties from Igbo, Akpa and Ibibio tribes. It is important to note that of the five main African language sub-families, Aro is about the only one that is composed of people of more than one language sub-family, namely Kwa sub-family (which includes the Igbo, Yoruba, Edo, Igala and Ijaw) and, the Benue-Congo sub-family (which consists of Tiv, Bantu (Bamileke and Ekoi); Efik-Ibibio, Jukun and the Plateau languages).”
[2]
[1]: Adekunle, M. A. (1972). Multilingualism and Language Function in Nigeria. African Studies Review, 15(2), 185–207: 192. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/GM68JYZA/collection [2]: Okoro, M. A., & Ezumah, M. B. (Eds.). (2017). Perspectives on Aro History and Civilization: The Splendour of a Great Past (Vol. 3). Lulu.com: 2–3. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MVK268JM/collection |
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